A HAND-BOOK OF MYTHOLOGY.

THE

E. M. BERENS.

ILLUSTRATED FROM ANTIQUE SCULPTURES.

NEW YORK:

Maynard, Merrill, & Co.,

43, 45 and 47 East Tenth Street.

[i]

PREFACE.

The want of an interesting work on Greek and Roman mythology, suitable

for the requirements of both boys and girls, has long been recognized by

the principals of our advanced schools. The study of the classics

themselves, even where the attainments of the pupil have rendered this

feasible, has not been found altogether successful in giving to the

student a clear and succinct idea of the religious beliefs of the

ancients, and it has been suggested that a work which would so deal with

the subject as to render it at once interesting and instructive would be

hailed as a valuable introduction to the study of classic authors, and

would be found to assist materially the labours of both master and

pupil.

In endeavouring to supply this want I have sought to place before the

reader a lifelike picture of the deities of classical times as they were

conceived and worshipped by the ancients themselves, and thereby to

awaken in the minds of young students a desire to become more intimately

acquainted with the noble productions of classical antiquity.

It has been my aim to render the Legends, which form the second

portion of the work, a picture, as it were, of old Greek life; its

customs, its superstitions, and its princely hospitalities, for which

reason they are given at somewhat greater length than is usual in works

of the kind.

In a chapter devoted to the purpose some interesting particulars have

been collected respecting the public worship of the ancient Greeks and

Romans (more especially of the former), to which is subjoined an account

of their principal festivals.

I may add that no pains have been spared in order that, without

passing over details the omission of which would have [ii]marred the

completeness of the work, not a single passage should be found which

could possibly offend the most scrupulous delicacy; and also that I have

purposely treated the subject with that reverence which I consider due to

every religious system, however erroneous.

It is hardly necessary to dwell upon the importance of the study of

Mythology: our poems, our novels, and even our daily journals teem with

classical allusions; nor can a visit to our art galleries and museums be

fully enjoyed without something more than a mere superficial knowledge of

a subject which has in all ages inspired painters, sculptors, and poets.

It therefore only remains for me to express a hope that my little work

may prove useful, not only to teachers and scholars, but also to a large

class of general readers, who, in whiling away a leisure hour, may derive

some pleasure and profit from its perusal.

E. M. BERENS.

[iii]

CONTENTS.

[7]

MYTHS AND LEGENDS OF ANCIENT GREECE AND ROME.

PART I.—MYTHS.

INTRODUCTION.

Before entering upon the many strange beliefs of the ancient Greeks,

and the extraordinary number of gods they worshipped, we must first

consider what kind of beings these divinities were.

In appearance, the gods were supposed to resemble mortals, whom,

however, they far surpassed in beauty, grandeur, and strength; they were

also more commanding in stature, height being considered by the Greeks an

attribute of beauty in man or woman. They resembled human beings in their

feelings and habits, intermarrying and having children, and requiring

daily nourishment to recruit their strength, and refreshing sleep to

restore their energies. Their blood, a bright ethereal fluid called

Ichor, never engendered disease, and, when shed, had the power of

producing new life.

The Greeks believed that the mental qualifications of their gods were

of a much higher order than those of men, but nevertheless, as we shall

see, they were not considered to be exempt from human passions, and we

frequently behold them actuated by revenge, deceit, and jealousy. They,

however, always punish the evil-doer, and visit with dire calamities any

impious mortal who dares to neglect their worship or despise their rites.

We often hear of them visiting mankind and partaking of their

hospitality, and not unfrequently both gods and goddesses [8]become attached to

mortals, with whom they unite themselves, the offspring of these unions

being called heroes or demi-gods, who were usually renowned for their

great strength and courage. But although there were so many points of

resemblance between gods and men, there remained the one great

characteristic distinction, viz., that the gods enjoyed immortality.

Still, they were not invulnerable, and we often hear of them being

wounded, and suffering in consequence such exquisite torture that they

have earnestly prayed to be deprived of their privilege of

immortality.

The gods knew no limitation of time or space, being able to transport

themselves to incredible distances with the speed of thought. They

possessed the power of rendering themselves invisible at will, and could

assume the forms of men or animals as it suited their convenience. They

could also transform human beings into trees, stones, animals, &c.,

either as a punishment for their misdeeds, or as a means of protecting

the individual, thus transformed, from impending danger. Their robes were

like those worn by mortals, but were perfect in form and much finer in

texture. Their weapons also resembled those used by mankind; we hear of

spears, shields, helmets, bows and arrows, &c., being employed by the

gods. Each deity possessed a beautiful chariot, which, drawn by horses or

other animals of celestial breed, conveyed them rapidly over land and sea

according to their pleasure. Most of these divinities lived on the summit

of Mount Olympus, each possessing his or her individual habitation, and

all meeting together on festive occasions in the council-chamber of the

gods, where their banquets were enlivened by the sweet strains of

Apollo’s lyre, whilst the beautiful voices of the Muses poured forth

their rich melodies to his harmonious accompaniment. Magnificent temples

were erected to their honour, where they were worshipped with the

greatest solemnity; rich gifts were presented to them, and animals, and

indeed sometimes human beings, were sacrificed on their altars.

In the study of Grecian mythology we meet with some [9]curious, and what

may at first sight appear unaccountable notions. Thus we hear of terrible

giants hurling rocks, upheaving mountains, and raising earthquakes which

engulf whole armies; these ideas, however, may be accounted for by the

awful convulsions of nature, which were in operation in pre-historic

times. Again, the daily recurring phenomena, which to us, who know them

to be the result of certain well-ascertained laws of nature, are so

familiar as to excite no remark, were, to the early Greeks, matter of

grave speculation, and not unfrequently of alarm. For instance, when they

heard the awful roar of thunder, and saw vivid flashes of lightning,

accompanied by black clouds and torrents of rain, they believed that the

great god of heaven was angry, and they trembled at his wrath. If the

calm and tranquil sea became suddenly agitated, and the crested billows

rose mountains high, dashing furiously against the rocks, and threatening

destruction to all within their reach, the sea-god was supposed to be in

a furious rage. When they beheld the sky glowing with the hues of coming

day they thought that the goddess of the dawn, with rosy fingers, was

drawing aside the dark veil of night, to allow her brother, the sun-god,

to enter upon his brilliant career. Thus personifying all the powers of

nature, this very imaginative and highly poetical nation beheld a

divinity in every tree that grew, in every stream that flowed, in the

bright beams of the glorious sun, and the clear, cold rays of the silvery

moon; for them the whole universe lived and breathed, peopled by a

thousand forms of grace and beauty.

The most important of these divinities may have been something more

than the mere creations of an active and poetical imagination. They were

possibly human beings who had so distinguished themselves in life by

their preeminence over their fellow-mortals that after death they were

deified by the people among whom they lived, and the poets touched with

their magic wand the details of lives, which, in more prosaic times,

would simply have been recorded as illustrious. [10]

It is highly probable that the reputed actions of these deified beings

were commemorated by bards, who, travelling from one state to another,

celebrated their praise in song; it therefore becomes exceedingly

difficult, nay almost impossible, to separate bare facts from the

exaggerations which never fail to accompany oral traditions.

In order to exemplify this, let us suppose that Orpheus, the son of

Apollo, so renowned for his extraordinary musical powers, had existed at

the present day. We should no doubt have ranked him among the greatest of

our musicians, and honoured him as such; but the Greeks, with their vivid

imagination and poetic license, exaggerated his remarkable gifts, and

attributed to his music supernatural influence over animate and inanimate

nature. Thus we hear of wild beasts tamed, of mighty rivers arrested in

their course, and of mountains being moved by the sweet tones of his

voice. The theory here advanced may possibly prove useful in the future,

in suggesting to the reader the probable basis of many of the

extraordinary accounts we meet with in the study of classical

mythology.

And now a few words will be necessary concerning the religious beliefs

of the Romans. When the Greeks first settled in Italy they found in the

country they colonized a mythology belonging to the Celtic inhabitants,

which, according to the Greek custom of paying reverence to all gods,

known or unknown, they readily adopted, selecting and appropriating those

divinities which had the greatest affinity to their own, and thus they

formed a religious belief which naturally bore the impress of its ancient

Greek source. As the primitive Celts, however, were a less civilized

people than the Greeks, their mythology was of a more barbarous

character, and this circumstance, combined with the fact that the Romans

were not gifted with the vivid imagination of their Greek neighbours,

leaves its mark on the Roman mythology, which is far less fertile in

fanciful conceits, and deficient in all those fairy-like stories and

wonderfully poetic ideas which so strongly characterize that of the

Greeks.

[11]

ORIGIN OF THE WORLD.—FIRST DYNASTY.

URANUS AND GÆA. (Cœlus and Terra.)

The ancient Greeks had several different theories with regard to the

origin of the world, but the generally accepted notion was that before

this world came into existence, there was in its place a confused mass of

shapeless elements called Chaos. These elements becoming at length

consolidated (by what means does not appear), resolved themselves into

two widely different substances, the lighter portion of which, soaring on

high, formed the sky or firmament, and constituted itself into a vast,

overarching vault, which protected the firm and solid mass beneath.

Thus came into being the two first great primeval deities of the

Greeks, Uranus and Ge or Gæa.

Uranus, the more refined deity, represented the light and air of

heaven, possessing the distinguishing qualities of light, heat, purity,

and omnipresence, whilst Gæa, the firm, flat,^[1] life-sustaining earth, was worshipped as

the great all-nourishing mother. Her many titles refer to her more or

less in this character, and she appears to have been universally revered

among the Greeks, there being scarcely a city in Greece which did not

contain a temple erected in her honour; indeed Gæa was held in such

veneration that her name was always invoked whenever the gods took a

solemn oath, made an emphatic declaration, or implored assistance.

Uranus, the heaven, was believed to have united himself in marriage

with Gæa, the earth; and a moment’s reflection will show what a truly

poetical, and also what a logical idea this was; for, taken in a

figurative sense, [12]this union actually does exist. The smiles

of heaven produce the flowers of earth, whereas his long-continued frowns

exercise so depressing an influence upon his loving partner, that she no

longer decks herself in bright and festive robes, but responds with ready

sympathy to his melancholy mood.

The first-born child of Uranus and Gæa was Oceanus,^[2] the ocean stream, that vast expanse of

ever-flowing water which encircled the earth. Here we meet with another

logical though fanciful conclusion, which a very slight knowledge of the

workings of nature proves to have been just and true. The ocean is formed

from the rains which descend from heaven and the streams which flow from

earth. By making Oceanus therefore the offspring of Uranus and Gæa, the

ancients, if we take this notion in its literal sense, merely assert that

the ocean is produced by the combined influence of heaven and earth,

whilst at the same time their fervid and poetical imagination led them to

see in this, as in all manifestations of the powers of nature, an actual,

tangible divinity.

But Uranus, the heaven, the embodiment of light, heat, and the breath

of life, produced offspring who were of a much less material nature than

his son Oceanus. These other children of his were supposed to occupy the

intermediate space which divided him from Gæa. Nearest to Uranus, and

just beneath him, came Aether (Ether), a bright creation representing

that highly rarified atmosphere which immortals alone could breathe. Then

followed Aër (Air), which was in close proximity to Gæa, and represented,

as its name implies, the grosser atmosphere surrounding the earth which

mortals could freely breathe, and without which they would perish. Aether

and Aër were separated from each other by divinities called Nephelae.

These were their restless and wandering sisters, who existed in the form

of clouds, ever [13]floating between Aether and Aër. Gæa also

produced the mountains, and Pontus (the sea). She united herself with the

latter, and their offspring were the sea-deities Nereus, Thaumas,

Phorcys, Ceto, and Eurybia.

Co-existent with Uranus and Gæa were two mighty powers who were also

the offspring of Chaos. These were Erebus (Darkness) and Nyx (Night), who

formed a striking contrast to the cheerful light of heaven and the bright

smiles of earth. Erebus reigned in that mysterious world below where no

ray of sunshine, no gleam of daylight, nor vestige of health-giving

terrestrial life ever appeared. Nyx, the sister of Erebus, represented

Night, and was worshipped by the ancients with the greatest

solemnity.

Uranus was also supposed to have been united to Nyx, but only in his

capacity as god of light, he being considered the source and fountain of

all light, and their children were Eos (Aurora), the Dawn, and Hemera,

the Daylight. Nyx again, on her side was also doubly united, having been

married at some indefinite period to Erebus.

In addition to those children of heaven and earth already enumerated,

Uranus and Gæa produced two distinctly different races of beings called

Giants and Titans. The Giants personified brute strength alone, but the

Titans united to their great physical power intellectual qualifications

variously developed. There were three Giants, Briareus, Cottus, and

Gyges, who each possessed a hundred hands and fifty heads, and were known

collectively by the name of the Hecatoncheires, which signified

hundred-handed. These mighty Giants could shake the universe and produce

earthquakes; it is therefore evident that they represented those active

subterranean forces to which allusion has been made in the opening

chapter. The Titans were twelve in number; their names were: Oceanus,

Ceos, Crios, Hyperion, Iapetus, Cronus, Theia, Rhea, Themis, Mnemosyne,

Phœbe, and Tethys.

Now Uranus, the chaste light of heaven, the essence of all that is

bright and pleasing, held in abhorrence his [14]crude, rough, and

turbulent offspring, the Giants, and moreover feared that their great

power might eventually prove hurtful to himself. He therefore hurled them

into Tartarus, that portion of the lower world which served as the

subterranean dungeon of the gods. In order to avenge the oppression of

her children, the Giants, Gæa instigated a conspiracy on the part of the

Titans against Uranus, which was carried to a successful issue by her son

Cronus. He wounded his father, and from the blood of the wound which fell

upon the earth sprang a race of monstrous beings also called Giants.

Assisted by his brother-Titans, Cronus succeeded in dethroning his

father, who, enraged at his defeat, cursed his rebellious son, and

foretold to him a similar fate. Cronus now became invested with supreme

power, and assigned to his brothers offices of distinction, subordinate

only to himself. Subsequently, however, when, secure of his position, he

no longer needed their assistance, he basely repaid their former services

with treachery, made war upon his brothers and faithful allies, and,

assisted by the Giants, completely defeated them, sending such as

resisted his all-conquering arm down into the lowest depths of

Tartarus.

SECOND DYNASTY.

CRONUS (Saturn).

Cronus was the god of time in its sense of eternal duration. He

married Rhea, daughter of Uranus and Gæa, a very important divinity, to

whom a special chapter will be devoted hereafter. Their children were,

three sons: Aïdes (Pluto), Poseidon (Neptune), Zeus (Jupiter), and three

daughters: Hestia (Vesta), Demeter (Ceres), and Hera (Juno). Cronus,

having an uneasy conscience, was afraid that his children might one day

rise up against his authority, and thus verify the prediction of his

father [15]Uranus. In order, therefore, to render the

prophecy impossible of fulfilment, Cronus swallowed each child as soon as

it was born,^[3] greatly to

the sorrow and indignation of his wife Rhea. When it came to Zeus, the

sixth and last, Rhea resolved to try and save this one child at least, to

love and cherish, and appealed to her parents, Uranus and Gæa, for

counsel and assistance. By their advice she wrapped a stone in

baby-clothes, and Cronus, in eager haste, swallowed it, without noticing

the deception. The child thus saved, eventually, as we shall see,

dethroned his father Cronus, became supreme god in his stead, and was

universally venerated as the great national god of the Greeks.

Anxious to preserve the secret of his existence from Cronus, Rhea sent

the infant Zeus secretly to Crete, where he was nourished, protected, and

educated. A sacred goat, called Amalthea, supplied the place of his

mother, by providing him with milk; nymphs, called Melissae, fed him with

honey, and eagles and doves brought him nectar and ambrosia.^[4] He was kept concealed in a

cave in the heart of Mount Ida, and the Curetes, or priests of Rhea, by

beating their shields together, kept up a constant noise at the entrance,

which drowned the cries of the child and frightened away all intruders.

Under the watchful care of the Nymphs the infant Zeus throve rapidly,

developing great physical powers, combined with [16]extraordinary wisdom and

intelligence. Grown to manhood, he determined to compel his father to

restore his brothers and sisters to the light of day, and is said to have

been assisted in this difficult task by the goddess Metis, who artfully

persuaded Cronus to drink a potion, which caused him to give back the

children he had swallowed. The stone which had counterfeited Zeus was

placed at Delphi, where it was long exhibited as a sacred relic.

Cronus was so enraged at being circumvented that war between the

father and son became inevitable. The rival forces ranged themselves on

two separate high mountains in Thessaly; Zeus, with his brothers and

sisters, took his stand on Mount Olympus, where he was joined by Oceanus,

and others of the Titans, who had forsaken Cronus on account of his

oppressions. Cronus and his brother-Titans took possession of Mount

Othrys, and prepared for battle. The struggle was long and fierce, and at

length Zeus, finding that he was no nearer victory than before, bethought

himself of the existence of the imprisoned Giants, and knowing that they

would be able to render him most powerful assistance, he hastened to

liberate them. He also called to his aid the Cyclops (sons of Poseidon

and Amphitrite),^[5] who had

only one eye each in the middle of their foreheads, and were called

Brontes (Thunder), Steropes (Lightning), and Pyracmon (Fire-anvil). They

promptly responded to his summons for help, and brought with them

tremendous thunderbolts which the Hecatoncheires, with their hundred

hands, hurled down upon the enemy, at the same time raising mighty

earthquakes, which swallowed up and destroyed all who opposed them. Aided

by these new and powerful allies, Zeus now made a furious onslaught on

his enemies, and so tremendous was the encounter that all nature is said

to have throbbed in accord with this mighty effort of the celestial

deities. The sea rose mountains high, and its angry billows [17]hissed and

foamed; the earth shook to its foundations, the heavens sent forth

rolling thunder, and flash after flash of death-bringing lightning,

whilst a blinding mist enveloped Cronus and his allies.

And now the fortunes of war began to turn, and victory smiled on Zeus.

Cronus and his army were completely overthrown, his brothers despatched

to the gloomy depths of the lower world, and Cronus himself was banished

from his kingdom and deprived for ever of the supreme power, which now

became vested in his son Zeus. This war was called the Titanomachia, and

is most graphically described by the old classic poets.

With the defeat of Cronus and his banishment from his dominions, his

career as a ruling Greek divinity entirely ceases. But being, like all

the gods, immortal, he was supposed to be still in existence, though

possessing no longer either influence or authority, his place being

filled to a certain extent by his descendant and successor, Zeus.

Cronus is often represented as an old man leaning on a scythe, with an

hour-glass in his hand. The hour-glass symbolizes the fast-fleeting

moments as they succeed each other unceasingly; the scythe is

emblematical of time, which mows down all before it.

SATURN.

The Romans, according to their custom of identifying their deities

with those of the Greek gods whose attributes were similar to their own,

declared Cronus to be identical with their old agricultural divinity

Saturn. They believed that after his defeat in the [18]Titanomachia and his

banishment from his dominions by Zeus, he took refuge with Janus, king of

Italy, who received the exiled deity with great kindness, and even shared

his throne with him. Their united reign became so thoroughly peaceful and

happy, and was distinguished by such uninterrupted prosperity, that it

was called the Golden Age.

Saturn is usually represented bearing a sickle in the one hand and a

wheat-sheaf in the other.

A temple was erected to him at the foot of the Capitoline Hill, in

which were deposited the public treasury and the laws of the state.

RHEA (Ops).

Rhea, the wife of Cronus, and mother of Zeus and the other great gods

of Olympus, personified the earth, and was regarded as the Great Mother

and unceasing producer of all plant-life. She was also believed to

exercise unbounded sway over the animal creation, more especially over

the lion, the noble king of beasts. Rhea is generally represented wearing

a crown of turrets or towers and seated on a throne, with lions crouching

at her feet. She is sometimes depicted sitting in a chariot, drawn by

lions.

The principal seat of her worship, which was always of a very riotous

character, was at Crete. At her festivals, which took place at night, the

wildest music of flutes, cymbals, and drums resounded, whilst joyful

shouts and cries, accompanied by dancing and loud stamping of feet,

filled the air.

This divinity was introduced into Crete by its first colonists from

Phrygia, in Asia Minor, in which country she was worshipped under the

name of Cybele. The people of Crete adored her as the Great Mother, more

especially in her signification as the sustainer of the vegetable world.

Seeing, however, that year by year, as winter appears, all her glory

vanishes, her flowers fade, and her trees become leafless, they

poetically expressed this process of nature under the figure of a lost

love. She [19]was said to have been tenderly attached to a

youth of remarkable beauty, named Atys, who, to her grief and

indignation, proved faithless to her. He was about to unite himself to a

nymph called Sagaris, when, in the midst of the wedding feast, the rage

of the incensed goddess suddenly burst forth upon all present. A panic

seized the assembled guests, and Atys, becoming afflicted with temporary

madness, fled to the mountains and destroyed himself. Cybele, moved with

sorrow and regret, instituted a yearly mourning for his loss, when her

priests, the Corybantes, with their usual noisy accompaniments, marched

into the mountains to seek the lost youth. Having discovered him^[6] they gave full vent to their

ecstatic delight by indulging in the most violent gesticulations,

dancing, shouting, and, at the same time, wounding and gashing themselves

in a frightful manner.

OPS.

In Rome the Greek Rhea was identified with Ops, the goddess of plenty,

the wife of Saturn, who had a variety of appellations. She was called

Magna-Mater, Mater-Deorum, Berecynthia-Idea, and also Dindymene. This

latter title she acquired from three high mountains in Phrygia, whence

she was brought to Rome as Cybele during the second Punic war, B.C. 205, in obedience to an injunction contained in

the Sybilline books. She was represented as a matron crowned with towers,

seated in a chariot drawn by lions.

DIVISION OF THE WORLD.

We will now return to Zeus and his brothers, who, having gained a

complete victory over their enemies, began to consider how the world,

which they had [20]conquered, should be divided between them.

At last it was settled by lot that Zeus should reign supreme in Heaven,

whilst Aïdes governed the Lower World, and Poseidon had full command over

the Sea, but the supremacy of Zeus was recognized in all three kingdoms,

in heaven, on earth (in which of course the sea was included), and under

the earth. Zeus held his court on the top of Mount Olympus, whose summit

was beyond the clouds; the dominions of Aïdes were the gloomy unknown

regions below the earth; and Poseidon reigned over the sea. It will be

seen that the realm of each of these gods was enveloped in mystery.

Olympus was shrouded in mists, Hades was wrapt in gloomy darkness, and

the sea was, and indeed still is, a source of wonder and deep interest.

Hence we see that what to other nations were merely strange phenomena,

served this poetical and imaginative people as a foundation upon which to

build the wonderful stories of their mythology.

The division of the world being now satisfactorily arranged, it would

seem that all things ought to have gone on smoothly, but such was not the

case. Trouble arose in an unlooked-for quarter. The Giants, those hideous

monsters (some with legs formed of serpents) who had sprung from the

earth and the blood of Uranus, declared war against the triumphant

deities of Olympus, and a struggle ensued, which, in consequence of Gæa

having made these children of hers invincible as long as they kept their

feet on the ground, was wearisome and protracted. Their mother’s

precaution, however, was rendered unavailing by pieces of rock being

hurled upon them, which threw them down, and their feet being no longer

placed firmly on their mother-earth, they were overcome, and this tedious

war (which was called the Gigantomachia) at last came to an end. Among

the most daring of these earth-born giants were Enceladus, Rhœtus,

and the valiant Mimas, who, with youthful fire and energy, hurled against

heaven great masses of rock and burning oak-trees, and defied the

lightnings of Zeus. One of the most powerful monsters who opposed Zeus in

this [21]war was called Typhon or Typhœus. He

was the youngest son of Tartarus and Gæa, and had a hundred heads, with

eyes which struck terror to the beholders, and awe-inspiring voices

frightful to hear. This dreadful monster resolved to conquer both gods

and men, but his plans were at length defeated by Zeus, who, after a

violent encounter, succeeded in destroying him with a thunderbolt, but

not before he had so terrified the gods that they had fled for refuge to

Egypt, where they metamorphosed themselves into different animals and

thus escaped.

THEORIES AS TO THE ORIGIN OF MAN.

Just as there were several theories concerning the origin of the

world, so there were various accounts of the creation of man.

The first natural belief of the Greek people was that man had sprung

from the earth. They saw the tender plants and flowers force their way

through the ground in the early spring of the year after the frost of

winter had disappeared, and so they naturally concluded that man must

also have issued from the earth in a similar manner. Like the wild plants

and flowers, he was supposed to have had no cultivation, and resembled in

his habits the untamed beasts of the field, having no habitation except

that which nature had provided in the holes of the rocks, and in the

dense forests whose overarching boughs protected him from the inclemency

of the weather.

In the course of time these primitive human beings became tamed and

civilized by the gods and heroes, who taught them to work in metals, to

build houses, and other useful arts of civilization. But the human race

became in the course of time so degenerate that the gods resolved to

destroy all mankind by means of a flood; Deucalion [22](son of Prometheus) and

his wife Pyrrha, being, on account of their piety, the only mortals

saved.

By the command of his father, Deucalion built a ship, in which he and

his wife took refuge during the deluge, which lasted for nine days. When

the waters abated the ship rested on Mount Othrys in Thessaly, or

according to some on Mount Parnassus. Deucalion and his wife now

consulted the oracle of Themis as to how the human race might be

restored. The answer was, that they were to cover their heads, and throw

the bones of their mother behind them. For some time they were perplexed

as to the meaning of the oracular command, but at length both agreed that

by the bones of their mother were meant the stones of the earth. They

accordingly took up stones from the mountain side and cast them over

their shoulders. From those thrown by Deucalion there sprang up men, and

from those thrown by Pyrrha, women.

After the lapse of time the theory of Autochthony (from autos,

self, and chthon, earth) was laid aside. When this belief existed

there were no religious teachers whatever; but in course of time temples

were raised in honour of the different gods, and priests appointed to

offer sacrifices to them and conduct their worship. These priests were

looked upon as authorities in all religious matters, and the doctrine

they taught was, that man had been created by the gods, and that there

had been several successive ages of men, which were called the Golden,

Silver, Brazen, and Iron Ages.

Life in the Golden Age was one unceasing round of ever-recurring

pleasures unmarred by sorrow or care. The favoured mortals living at this

happy time led pure and joyous lives, thinking no evil, and doing no

wrong. The earth brought forth fruits and flowers without toil or labour

in plentiful luxuriance, and war was unknown. This delightful and

god-like existence lasted for hundreds of years, and when at length life

on earth was ended, death laid his hand so gently upon them that they

passed painlessly away in a happy dream, and continued their existence as

ministering spirits in Hades, watching over and [23]protecting those they had

loved and left behind on earth. The men of the Silver Age^[7] were a long time growing up, and during

their childhood, which lasted a hundred years, they suffered from

ill-health and extreme debility. When they at last became men they lived

but a short time, for they would not abstain from mutual injury, nor pay

the service due to the gods, and were therefore banished to Hades. There,

unlike the beings of the Golden Age, they exercised no beneficent

supervision over the dear ones left behind, but wandered about as

restless spirits, always sighing for the lost pleasures they had enjoyed

in life.

The men of the Brazen Age were quite a different race of beings, being

as strong and powerful as those of the Silver Age were weak and

enervated. Everything which surrounded them was of brass; their arms,

their tools, their dwellings, and all that they made. Their characters

seem to have resembled the metal in which they delighted; their minds and

hearts were hard, obdurate, and cruel. They led a life of strife and

contention, introduced into the world, which had hitherto known nothing

but peace and tranquillity, the scourge of war, and were in fact only

happy when fighting and quarrelling with each other. Hitherto Themis, the

goddess of Justice, had been living among mankind, but becoming

disheartened at their evil doings, she abandoned the earth, and winged

her flight back to heaven. At last the gods became so tired of their evil

deeds and continual dissensions, that they removed them from the face of

the earth, and sent them down to Hades to share the fate of their

predecessors.

We now come to the men of the Iron Age. The earth, no longer teeming

with fruitfulness, only yielded her increase after much toil and labour.

The goddess of Justice having abandoned mankind, no influence remained

sufficiently powerful to preserve them from every kind of wickedness and

sin. This condition grew worse as time went on, until at last Zeus in his

anger let loose the water-courses from above, and drowned every [24]individual of

this evil race, except Deucalion and Pyrrha.

The theory of Hesiod,^[8]

the oldest of all the Greek poets, was that the Titan Prometheus, the son

of Iapetus, had formed man out of clay, and that Athene had breathed a

soul into him. Full of love for the beings he had called into existence,

Prometheus determined to elevate their minds and improve their condition

in every way; he therefore taught them astronomy, mathematics, the

alphabet, how to cure diseases, and the art of divination. He created

this race in such great numbers that the gods began to see the necessity

of instituting certain fixed laws with regard to the sacrifices due to

them, and the worship to which they considered themselves entitled from

mankind in return for the protection which they accorded them. An

assembly was therefore convened at Mecone in order to settle these

points. It was decided that Prometheus, as the advocate of man, should

slay an ox, which should be divided into two equal parts, and that the

gods should select one portion which should henceforth, in all future

sacrifices, be set apart for them. Prometheus so divided the ox that one

part consisted of the bones (which formed of course the least valuable

portion of the animal), artfully concealed by the white fat; whilst the

other contained all the edible parts, which he covered with the skin, and

on the top of all he laid the stomach.

Zeus, pretending to be deceived, chose the heap of bones, but he saw

through the stratagem, and was so angry at the deception practised on him

by Prometheus that he avenged himself by refusing to mortals the gift of

fire. [25]Prometheus, however, resolved to brave the

anger of the great ruler of Olympus, and to obtain from heaven the vital

spark so necessary for the further progress and comfort of the human

race. He accordingly contrived to steal some sparks from the chariot of

the sun, which he conveyed to earth hidden in a hollow tube. Furious at

being again outwitted, Zeus determined to be revenged first on mankind,

and then on Prometheus. To punish the former he commanded Hephæstus

(Vulcan) to mould a beautiful woman out of clay, and determined that

through her instrumentality trouble and misery should be brought into the

world.

The gods were so charmed with the graceful and artistic creation of

Hephæstus, that they all determined to endow her with some special gift.

Hermes (Mercury) bestowed on her a smooth persuasive tongue, Aphrodite

gave her beauty and the art of pleasing; the Graces made her fascinating,

and Athene (Minerva) gifted her with the possession of feminine

accomplishments. She was called Pandora, which means all-gifted, having

received every attribute necessary to make her charming and irresistible.

Thus beautifully formed and endowed, this exquisite creature, attired by

the Graces, and crowned with flowers by the Seasons, was conducted to the

house of Epimetheus^[9] by

Hermes the messenger of the gods. Now Epimetheus had been warned by his

brother not to accept any gift whatever from the gods; but he was so

fascinated by the beautiful being who suddenly appeared before him, that

he welcomed her to his home, and made her his wife. It was not long,

however, before he had cause to regret his weakness.

He had in his possession a jar of rare workmanship, containing all the

blessings reserved by the gods for mankind, which he had been expressly

forbidden to open. But woman’s proverbial curiosity could not withstand

so great a temptation, and Pandora determined to solve the mystery at any

cost. Watching her opportunity she raised the lid, and immediately all

the blessings which [26]the gods had thus reserved for mankind took

wing and flew away. But all was not lost. Just as Hope (which lay at the

bottom) was about to escape, Pandora hastily closed the lid of the jar,

and thus preserved to man that never-failing solace which helps him to

bear with courage the many ills which assail him.^[10]

Having punished mankind, Zeus determined to execute vengeance on

Prometheus. He accordingly chained him to a rock in Mount Caucasus, and

sent an eagle every day to gnaw away his liver, which grew again every

night ready for fresh torments. For thirty years Prometheus endured this

fearful punishment; but at length Zeus relented, and permitted his son

Heracles (Hercules) to kill the eagle, and the sufferer was released.

THIRD DYNASTY—OLYMPIAN DIVINITIES.

ZEUS^[11] (Jupiter).

Zeus, the great presiding deity of the universe, the ruler of heaven

and earth, was regarded by the Greeks, first, as the god of all aërial

phenomena; secondly, as the personification of the laws of nature;

thirdly, as lord of state-life; and fourthly, as the father of gods and

men.

As the god of aërial phenomena he could, by shaking his ægis,^[12] produce storms, tempests,

and intense darkness. At his command the mighty thunder rolls, the

lightning flashes, and the clouds open and pour forth their refreshing

streams to fructify the earth.

As the personification of the operations of nature, he represents

those grand laws of unchanging and harmonious order, by which not only

the physical but also [27]the moral world is governed. Hence he is the

god of regulated time as marked by the changing seasons, and by the

regular succession of day and night, in contradistinction to his father

Cronus, who represents time absolutely, i.e. eternity.

As the lord of state-life, he is the founder of kingly power, the

upholder of all institutions connected with the state, and the special

friend and patron of princes, whom he guards and assists with his advice

and counsel. He protects the assembly of the people, and, in fact,

watches over the welfare of the whole community.

As the father of the gods, Zeus sees that each deity performs his or

her individual duty, punishes their misdeeds, settles their disputes, and

acts towards them on all occasions as their all-knowing counsellor and

mighty friend.

As the father of men, he takes a paternal interest in the actions and

well-being of mortals. He watches over them with tender solicitude,

rewarding truth, charity, and uprightness, but severely punishing

perjury, cruelty, and want of hospitality. Even the poorest and most

forlorn wanderer finds in him a powerful advocate, for he, by a wise and

merciful dispensation, ordains that the mighty ones of the earth should

succour their distressed and needy brethren.

The Greeks believed that the home of this their mighty and

all-powerful deity was on the top of Mount Olympus, that high and lofty

mountain between Thessaly and Macedon, whose summit, wrapt in clouds and

mist, was hidden from mortal view. It was supposed that this mysterious

region, which even a bird could not reach, extended beyond the clouds

right into Aether, the realm of the immortal gods. The poets describe

this ethereal atmosphere as bright, glistening, and refreshing,

exercising a peculiar, gladdening influence over the minds and hearts of

those privileged beings permitted to share its delights. Here youth never

ages, and the passing years leave no traces on its favoured inhabitants.

On the cloud-capped summit of Olympus was the palace of [28]Zeus and Hera,

of burnished gold, chased silver, and gleaming ivory. Lower down were the

homes of the other gods, which, though less commanding in position and

size, were yet similar to that of Zeus in design and workmanship, all

being the work of the divine artist Hephæstus. Below these were other

palaces of silver, ebony, ivory, or burnished brass, where the Heroes, or

Demi-gods, resided.

As the worship of Zeus formed so important a feature in the religion

of the Greeks, his statues were necessarily both numerous and

magnificent. He is usually represented as a man of noble and imposing

mien, his countenance expressing all the lofty majesty of the omnipotent

ruler of the universe, combined with the gracious, yet serious, benignity

of the father and friend of mankind. He may be recognized by his rich

flowing beard, and the thick masses of hair, which rise straight from the

high and intellectual forehead and fall to his shoulders in clustering

locks. The nose is large and finely formed, and the slightly-opened lips

impart an air of sympathetic kindliness which invites confidence. He is

always accompanied by an eagle, which either surmounts his sceptre, or

sits at his feet; he generally bears in his uplifted hand a sheaf of

thunder-bolts, just ready to be hurled, whilst in the other he holds the

lightning. The head is frequently encircled with a wreath of

oak-leaves.

The most celebrated statue of the Olympian Zeus was that by the famous

Athenian sculptor Phidias, which was forty feet high, and stood in the

temple of Zeus at Olympia. It was formed of ivory and gold, and was [29]such a

masterpiece of art, that it was reckoned among the seven wonders of the

world. It represented the god, seated on a throne, holding in his right

hand a life-sized image of Nike (the goddess of Victory), and in his left

a royal sceptre, surmounted by an eagle. It is said that the great

sculptor had concentrated all the marvellous powers of his genius on this

sublime conception, and earnestly entreated Zeus to give him a decided

proof that his labours were approved. An answer to his prayer came

through the open roof of the temple in the shape of a flash of lightning,

which Phidias interpreted as a sign that the god of heaven was pleased

with his work.

Zeus was first worshipped at Dodona in Epirus, where, at the foot of

Mount Tomarus, on the woody shore of Lake Joanina, was his famous oracle,

the most ancient in Greece. Here the voice of the eternal and invisible

god was supposed to be heard in the rustling leaves of a giant oak,

announcing to mankind the will of heaven and the destiny of mortals;

these revelations being interpreted to the people by the priests of Zeus,

who were called Selli. Recent excavations which have been made at this

spot have brought to light the ruins of the ancient temple of Zeus, and

also, among other interesting relics, some plates of lead, on which are

engraved inquiries which were evidently made by certain individuals who

consulted the oracle. These little leaden plates speak to us, as it were,

in a curiously homely manner of a by-gone time in the buried past. One

person inquires what god he should apply to for health and fortune;

another asks for advice concerning his child; and a third, evidently a

shepherd, promises a gift to the oracle should a speculation in sheep

turn out successfully. Had these little memorials been of gold instead of

lead, they would doubtless have shared the fate of the numerous treasures

which adorned this and other temples, in the universal pillage which took

place when Greece fell into the hands of barbarians.

Though Dodona was the most ancient of his shrines, the great national

seat of the worship of Zeus was at Olympia in Elis, where there was a

magnificent temple [30]dedicated to him, containing the famous

colossal statue by Phidias above described. Crowds of devout worshippers

flocked to this world-renowned fane from all parts of Greece, not only to

pay homage to their supreme deity, but also to join in the celebrated

games which were held there at intervals of four years. The Olympic games

were such a thoroughly national institution, that even Greeks who had

left their native country made a point of returning on these occasions,

if possible, in order to contend with their fellow-countrymen in the

various athletic sports which took place at these festivals.

It will be seen on reflection that in a country like Greece, which

contained so many petty states, often at variance with each other, these

national gatherings must have been most valuable as a means of uniting

the Greeks in one great bond of brotherhood. On these festive occasions

the whole nation met together, forgetting for the moment all past

differences, and uniting in the enjoyment of the same festivities.

It will doubtless have been remarked that in the representations of

Zeus he is always accompanied by an eagle. This royal bird was sacred to

him, probably from the fact of its being the only creature capable of

gazing at the sun without being dazzled, which may have suggested the

idea that it was able to contemplate the splendour of divine majesty

unshrinkingly.

The oak-tree, and also the summits of mountains, were sacred to Zeus.

His sacrifices consisted of white bulls, cows, and goats.

Zeus had seven immortal wives, whose names were Metis, Themis,

Eurynome, Demeter, Mnemosyne, Leto, and Hera.

METIS, his first wife, was one of the Oceanides or sea-nymphs.

She was the personification of prudence and wisdom, a convincing proof of

which she displayed in her successful administration of the potion which

caused Cronus to yield up his children. She was endowed with the gift of

prophecy, and foretold to Zeus that one of their children would gain

ascendency over [31]him. In order, therefore, to avert the

possibility of the prediction being fulfilled he swallowed her before any

children were born to them. Feeling afterwards violent pains in his head,

he sent for Hephæstus, and ordered him to open it with an axe. His

command was obeyed, and out sprang, with a loud and martial shout, a

beautiful being, clad in armour from head to foot. This was Athene

(Minerva), goddess of Armed Resistance and Wisdom.

THEMIS was the goddess of Justice, Law, and Order.

EURYNOME was one of the Oceanides, and the mother of the

Charites or Graces.

DEMETER,^[13] the

daughter of Cronus and Rhea, was the goddess of Agriculture.

MNEMOSYNE, the daughter of Uranus and Gæa, was the goddess of

Memory and the mother of the nine Muses.

LETO (Latona) was the daughter of Cœus and Phœbe.

She was gifted with wonderful beauty, and was tenderly loved by Zeus, but

her lot was far from being a happy one, for Hera, being extremely jealous

of her, persecuted her with inveterate cruelty, and sent the dreadful

serpent Python^[14] to

terrify and torment her wherever she went. But Zeus, who had observed

with the deepest compassion her weary wanderings and agonized fears,

resolved to create for her some place of refuge, however humble, where

she might feel herself safe from the venomous attacks of the serpent. He

therefore brought her to Delos, a floating island in the Ægean Sea, which

he made stationary by attaching it with chains of adamant to the bottom

of the sea. Here she gave birth to her twin-children, Apollo and Artemis

(Diana), two of the most beautiful of the immortals.

According to some versions of the story of Leto, Zeus transformed her

into a quail, in order that she might thus elude the vigilance of Hera,

and she is said to have [32]resumed her true form when she arrived at

the island of Delos.

HERA, being the principal wife of Zeus and queen of heaven, a

detailed account will be given of her in a special chapter.

In the union of Zeus with most of his immortal wives we shall find

that an allegorical meaning is conveyed. His marriage with Metis, who is

said to have surpassed both gods and men in knowledge, represents supreme

power allied to wisdom and prudence. His union with Themis typifies the

bond which exists between divine majesty and justice, law, and order.

Eurynome, as the mother of the Charites or Graces, supplied the refining

and harmonizing influences of grace and beauty, whilst the marriage of

Zeus with Mnemosyne typifies the union of genius with memory.

In addition to the seven immortal wives of Zeus, he was also allied to

a number of mortal maidens whom he visited under various disguises, as it

was supposed that if he revealed himself in his true form as king of

heaven the splendour of his glory would cause instant destruction to

mortals. The mortal consorts of Zeus have been such a favourite theme

with poets, painters, and sculptors, that it is necessary to give some

account of their individual history. Those best known are Antiope, Leda,

Europa, Callisto, Alcmene, Semele, Io, and Danae.

ANTIOPE, to whom Zeus appeared under the form of a satyr, was

the daughter of Nicteus, king of Thebes. To escape the anger of her

father she fled to Sicyon, where king Epopeus, enraptured with her

wonderful beauty, made her his wife without asking her father’s consent.

This so enraged Nicteus that he declared war against Epopeus, in order to

compel him to restore Antiope. At his death, which took place before he

could succeed in his purpose, Nicteus left his kingdom to his brother

Lycus, commanding him, at the same time, to carry on the war, and execute

his vengeance. Lycus invaded Sicyon, defeated and killed Epopeus, and

brought back [33]Antiope as a prisoner. On the way to Thebes

she gave birth to her twin-sons, Amphion and Zethus, who, by the orders

of Lycus, were at once exposed on Mount Cithaeron, and would have

perished but for the kindness of a shepherd, who took pity on them and

preserved their lives. Antiope was, for many years, held captive by her

uncle Lycus, and compelled to suffer the utmost cruelty at the hands of

his wife Dirce. But one day her bonds were miraculously loosened, and she

flew for shelter and protection to the humble dwelling of her sons on

Mount Cithaeron. During the long period of their mother’s captivity the

babes had grown into sturdy youths, and, as they listened angrily to the

story of her wrongs, they became all impatience to avenge them. Setting

off at once to Thebes they succeeded in possessing themselves of the

town, and after slaying the cruel Lycus they bound Dirce by the hair to

the horns of a wild bull, which dragged her hither and thither until she

expired. Her mangled body was cast into the fount near Thebes, which

still bears her name. Amphion became king of Thebes in his uncle’s stead.

He was a friend of the Muses, and devoted to music and poetry. His

brother, Zethus, was famous for his skill in archery, and was

passionately fond of the chase. It is said that when Amphion wished to

inclose the town of Thebes with walls and towers, he had but to play a

sweet melody on the lyre, given to him by Hermes, and the huge stones

began to move, and obediently fitted themselves together.

The punishment of Dirce at the hands of Amphion and Zethus forms the

subject of the world-renowned marble group in the museum at Naples, known

by the name of the Farnese Bull.

In sculpture Amphion is always represented with a lyre; Zethus with a

club.

LEDA, whose affections Zeus won under the form of a swan, was

the daughter of Thestius, king of Ætolia. Her twin-sons, Castor and

(Polydeuces or) Pollux,^[15]

were [34]renowned for their tender attachment to each

other. They were also famous for their physical accomplishments, Castor

being the most expert charioteer of his day, and Pollux the first of

pugilists. Their names appear both among the hunters of the Calydonian

boar-hunt and the heroes of the Argonautic expedition. The brothers

became attached to the daughters of Leucippus, prince of the Messenians,

who had been betrothed by their father to Idas and Lynceus, sons of

Aphareus. Having persuaded Leucippus to break his promise, the twins

carried off the maidens as their brides. Idas and Lynceus, naturally

furious at this proceeding, challenged the Dioscuri to mortal combat, in

which Castor perished by the hand of Idas, and Lynceus by that of Pollux.

Zeus wished to confer the gift of immortality upon Pollux, but he refused

to accept it unless allowed to share it with Castor. Zeus gave the

desired permission, and the faithful brothers were both allowed to live,

but only on alternate days. The Dioscuri received divine honours

throughout Greece, and were worshipped with special reverence at

Sparta.

EUROPA was the beautiful daughter of Agenor, king of

Phœnicia. She was one day gathering flowers with her companions in

a meadow near the sea-shore, when Zeus, charmed with her great beauty,

and wishing to win her love, transformed himself into a beautiful white

bull, and trotted quietly up to the princess, so as not to alarm her.

Surprised at the gentleness of the animal, and admiring its beauty, as it

lay placidly on the grass, she caressed it, crowned it with flowers, and,

at last, playfully seated herself on its back. Hardly had she done so

than the disguised god bounded away with his lovely burden, and swam

across the sea with her to the island of Crete.

Europa was the mother of Minos, Aeacus, and Rhadamanthus. Minos, who

became king of Crete, was celebrated for his justice and moderation, and

after death he was created one of the judges of the lower world, which

office he held in conjunction with his brothers. [35]

CALLISTO, the daughter of Lycaon, king of Arcadia, was a

huntress in the train of Artemis, devoted to the pleasures of the chase,

who had made a vow never to marry; but Zeus, under the form of the

huntress-goddess, succeeded in obtaining her affections. Hera, being

extremely jealous of her, changed her into a bear, and caused Artemis

(who failed to recognize her attendant under this form) to hunt her in

the chase, and put an end to her existence. After her death she was

placed by Zeus among the stars as a constellation, under the name of

Arctos, or the bear.

ALCMENE, the daughter of Electryon, king of Mycenae, was

betrothed to her cousin Amphytrion; but, during his absence on a perilous

undertaking, Zeus assumed his form, and obtained her affections. Heracles

(whose world-renowned exploits will be related among the legends) was the

son of Alcmene and Zeus.

SEMELE, a beautiful princess, the daughter of Cadmus, king of

Phœnicia, was greatly beloved by Zeus. Like the unfortunate

Callisto, she was hated by Hera with jealous malignity, and the haughty

queen of heaven determined to effect her destruction. Disguising herself,

therefore, as Berœ, Semele’s faithful old nurse, she artfully

persuaded her to insist upon Zeus visiting her, as he appeared to Hera,

in all his power and glory, well knowing that this would cause her

instant death. Semele, suspecting no treachery, followed the advice of

her supposed nurse; and the next time Zeus came to her, she earnestly

entreated him to grant the favour she was about to ask. Zeus swore by the

Styx (which was to the gods an irrevocable oath) to accede to her request

whatsoever it might be. Semele, therefore, secure of gaining her

petition, begged of Zeus to appear to her in all the glory of his divine

power and majesty. As he had sworn to grant whatever she asked of him, he

was compelled to comply with her wish; he therefore revealed himself as

the mighty lord of the universe, accompanied by thunder and lightning,

and she was instantly consumed in the flames. [36]

IO, daughter of Inachus, king of Argos, was a priestess of

Hera. She was very beautiful, and Zeus, who was much attached to her,

transformed her into a white cow, in order to defeat the jealous

intrigues of Hera, who, however, was not to be deceived. Aware of the

stratagem, she contrived to obtain the animal from Zeus, and placed her

under the watchful care of a man called Argus-Panoptes, who fastened her

to an olive-tree in the grove of Hera. He had a hundred eyes, of which,

when asleep, he never closed more than two at a time; being thus always

on the watch, Hera found him extremely useful in keeping guard over Io.

Hermes, however, by the command of Zeus, succeeded in putting all his

eyes to sleep with the sound of his magic lyre, and then, taking

advantage of his helpless condition, slew him. The story goes, that in

commemoration of the services which Argus had rendered her, Hera placed

his eyes on the tail of a peacock, as a lasting memorial of her

gratitude. Ever fertile in resource, Hera now sent a gadfly to worry and

torment the unfortunate Io incessantly, and she wandered all over the

world in hopes of escaping from her tormentor. At length she reached

Egypt, where she found rest and freedom from the persecutions of her

enemy. On the banks of the Nile she resumed her original form and gave

birth to a son called Epaphus, who afterwards became king of Egypt, and

built the famous city of Memphis.

DANAE.—Zeus appeared to Danae under the form of a shower

of gold. (Further details concerning her will be found in the legend of

Perseus.)

The Greeks supposed that the divine ruler of the Universe occasionally

assumed a human form, and descended from his celestial abode, in order to

visit mankind and observe their proceedings, his aim being generally

either to punish the guilty, or to reward the deserving.

On one occasion Zeus, accompanied by Hermes, made a journey through

Phrygia, seeking hospitality and shelter wherever they went. But nowhere

did they receive a [37]kindly welcome till they came to the humble

cottage of an old man and his wife called Philemon and Baucis, who

entertained them with the greatest kindness, setting before them what

frugal fare their humble means permitted, and bidding them welcome with

unaffected cordiality. Observing in the course of their simple repast

that the wine bowl was miraculously replenished, the aged couple became

convinced of the divine nature of their guests. The gods now informed

them that on account of its wickedness their native place was doomed to

destruction, and told them to climb the neighbouring hill with them,

which overlooked the village where they dwelt. What was their dismay on

beholding at their feet, in place of the spot where they had passed so

many happy years together, nothing but a watery plain, the only house to

be seen being their own little cottage, which suddenly changed itself

into a temple before their eyes. Zeus now asked the worthy pair to name

any wish they particularly desired and it should be granted. They

accordingly begged that they might serve the gods in the temple below,

and end life together.

Their wish was granted, for, after spending the remainder of their

lives in the worship of the gods, they both died at the same instant, and

were transformed by Zeus into trees, remaining for ever side by side.

Upon another occasion Zeus, wishing to ascertain for himself the truth

of the reports concerning the atrocious wickedness of mankind, made a

journey through Arcadia. Being recognized by the Arcadians as king of

heaven, he was received by them with becoming respect and veneration; but

Lycaon, their king, who had rendered himself infamous by the gross

impiety of himself and his sons, doubted the divinity of Zeus, ridiculed

his people for being so easily duped, and, according to his custom of

killing all strangers who ventured to trust his hospitality, resolved to

murder him. Before executing this wicked design, however, he decided to

put Zeus to the test, and having killed a boy for the purpose, placed

before him a dish containing human flesh. But Zeus was [38]not to be

deceived. He beheld the revolting dish with horror and loathing, and

angrily upsetting the table upon which it was placed, turned Lycaon into

a wolf, and destroyed all his fifty sons by lightning, except Nyctimus,

who was saved by the intervention of Gæa.

JUPITER.

The Roman Jupiter, who is so frequently confounded with the Greek

Zeus, is identical with him only as being the head of the Olympic gods,

and the presiding deity over Life, Light, and Aërial Phenomena. Jupiter

is lord of life in its widest and most comprehensive signification,

having absolute power over life and death, in which respect he differed

from the Greek Zeus, who was to a certain extent controlled by the

all-potent sway of the Moiræ or Fates. Zeus, as we have seen, often

condescends to visit mankind, either as a mortal, or under various

disguises, whereas Jupiter always remains essentially the supreme god of

heaven, and never appears upon earth.

The most celebrated temple of Jupiter was that on the Capitoline Hill

in the city of Rome, where he was worshipped under the names of

Jupiter-Optimus-Maximus, Capitolinus, and Tarpeius.

The Romans represented him seated on a throne of ivory, holding in his

right hand a sheaf of thunderbolts, and in his left a sceptre, whilst an

eagle stands beside his throne.

HERA (Juno).

Hera, the eldest daughter of Cronus and Rhea, was born at Samos, or,

according to some accounts, at Argos, and was reared by the

sea-divinities Oceanus and Tethys, who were models of conjugal

fidelity.^[16] She was the

[39]principal wife of Zeus, and, as queen of

heaven, participated in the honours paid to him, but her dominion only

extended over the air (the lower aërial regions). Hera appears to be the

sublime embodiment of strict matronly virtue, and is on that account the

protectress of purity and married women. Faultless herself in her

fidelity as a wife, she is essentially the type of the sanctity of the

marriage tie, and holds in abhorrence any violation of its obligations.

So strongly was she imbued with this hatred of any immorality, that,

finding herself so often called upon to punish the failings of both gods

and men in this respect, she became jealous, harsh, and vindictive. Her

exalted position as the wife of the supreme deity, combined with her

extreme beauty, caused her to become exceedingly vain, and she

consequently resented with great severity any infringement on her rights

as queen of heaven, or any apparent slight on her personal

appearance.

The following story will signally illustrate how ready she was to

resent any slight offered to her.

At the marriage of the sea-nymph Thetis with a mortal called Peleus,

all the gods and goddesses were present, except Eris (the goddess of

Discord). Indignant at not being invited, she determined to cause

dissension in the assembly, and for this purpose threw into the midst of

the guests a golden apple with the inscription on it “For the Fairest.”

Now, as all the goddesses were extremely beautiful, each claimed the

apple; but at length, the rest having relinquished their pretensions, the

number of candidates was reduced to three, Hera, Athene, and Aphrodite,

who agreed to appeal to Paris for a settlement of this delicate question,

he being noted for the wisdom he had displayed in his judgment upon

several occasions. Paris was the son of Priam, king of Troy, who,

ignorant of his noble birth, was at this time feeding his flocks on Mount

Ida, in Phrygia. Hermes, as messenger of the gods, conducted the three

rival beauties to the young shepherd, and with breathless anxiety they

awaited his decision. Each fair candidate endeavoured [40]to secure his

favour by the most tempting offers. Hera promised him extensive

dominions; Athene, martial fame and glory; and Aphrodite, the loveliest

woman in the world. But whether he really considered Aphrodite the

fairest of the three, or preferred a beautiful wife to fame and power, we

cannot tell; all we know is that to her he awarded the golden apple, and

she became ever after universally acknowledged as the goddess of beauty.

Hera, having fully expected that Paris would give her the preference, was

so indignant that she never forgave him, and not only persecuted him, but

all the family of Priam, whose dreadful sufferings and misfortunes during

the Trojan war were attributed to her influence. In fact, she carried her

animosity to such an extent that it was often the cause of domestic

disagreements between herself and Zeus, who espoused the cause of the

Trojans.

Among the many stories of these frequent quarrels there is one

connected with Heracles, the favourite son of Zeus, which is as

follows:—Hera having raised a storm at sea in order to drive him

out of his course, Zeus became so angry that he hung her in the clouds by

a golden chain, and attached heavy anvils to her feet. Her son Hephæstus

tried to release his mother from her humiliating position, for which Zeus

threw him out of heaven, and his leg was broken by the fall.

Hera, being deeply offended with Zeus, determined to separate herself

from him for ever, and she accordingly left him and took up her abode in

Eubœa. Surprised and grieved at this unlooked-for desertion, Zeus

resolved to leave no means untried to win her back again. In this

emergency he consulted Cithaeron, king of Platea, who was famed for his

great wisdom and subtlety. Cithaeron advised him to dress up an image in

bridal attire and place it in a chariot, announcing that this was Platea,

his future wife. The artifice succeeded. Hera, incensed at the idea of a

rival, flew to meet the procession in great anger, and seizing the

supposed bride, she furiously attacked her and dragged off her nuptial

attire. Her delight on discovering the deception was so great that a [41]reconciliation took place, and, committing

the image to the flames, with joyful laughter she seated herself in its

place and returned to Olympus.

Hera was the mother of Ares (Mars), Hephæstus, Hebe, and Eileithyia.

Ares was the god of War; Hephæstus, of Fire; Hebe, of Youth; and

Eileithyia presided over the birth of mortals.

Hera dearly loved Greece, and indeed always watched over and protected

Greek interests, her beloved and favourite cities being Argos, Samos,

Sparta, and Mycenæ.

Her principal temples were at Argos and Samos. From a remote period

she was greatly venerated at Olympia, and her temple there, which stood

in the Altis or sacred grove, was five hundred years older than that of

Zeus on the same spot. Some interesting excavations which are now going

on there have brought to light the remains of the ancient edifice, which

contains among other treasures of antiquity several beautiful statues,

the work of the famous sculptors of ancient Greece. At first this temple

was built of wood, then of stone, and the one lately discovered was

formed of conglomerate of shells.

In the Altis races were run by young maidens in honour of Hera, and

the fleetest of foot received in token of her victory an olive-wreath and

a piece of the flesh of the sacrifices. These races, like the Olympic

Games, were celebrated at intervals of four years, and were called Heræ.

A beautiful robe, woven by sixteen women chosen from the sixteen cities

of Elis, was always offered to Hera on these [42]occasions, and choral

songs and sacred dances formed part of the ceremonies.

Hera is usually represented seated on a throne, holding a pomegranate

in one hand and a sceptre surmounted by a cuckoo in the other. She

appears as a calm, dignified matron of majestic beauty, robed in a tunic

and mantle, her forehead is broad and intellectual, her eyes large and

fully opened, and her arms dazzlingly white and finely moulded.

The finest statue of this divinity was that by Polycletus at

Argos.

Her attributes are the diadem, veil, sceptre, and peacock.

The first day of every month a ewe-lamb and sow were sacrificed to

Hera. The hawk, goose, and more particularly the peacock^[17] were sacred to her. Flocks of these

beautiful birds generally surround her throne and draw her chariot, Iris,

the Rainbow, being seated behind her.

Her favourite flowers were the dittany, poppy, and lily.

JUNO.

Juno, the Roman divinity supposed to be identical with the Greek Hera,

differed from her in the most salient points, for whereas Hera invariably

appears as the haughty, unbending queen of heaven, Juno, on the other

hand, is revered and beloved as the type of a matron and housewife. She

was worshipped in Rome under various titles, most of which point to her

vocation as the protectress of married women. Juno was believed to watch

over and guard the life of every woman from her birth to her death. The

principal temples dedicated to her were in Rome, one being erected on the

Aventine, and the other on the Capitoline Hill. She had also a temple on

the Arx, in which she was worshipped as Juno Moneta, or the [43]warning goddess.

Adjacent to this shrine was the public mint.^[18] On the 1st of March a grand annual

festival, called the Matronalia, was celebrated in her honour by all the

married women of Rome, and this religious institution was accompanied

with much solemnity.^[19]

PALLAS-ATHENE (Minerva).

Pallas-Athene, goddess of Wisdom and Armed Resistance, was a purely

Greek divinity; that is to say, no other nation possessed a corresponding

conception. She was supposed, as already related, to have issued from the

head of Zeus himself, clad in armour from head to foot. The miraculous

advent of this maiden goddess is beautifully described by Homer in one of

his hymns: snow-capped Olympus shook to its foundation; the glad earth

re-echoed her martial shout; the billowy sea became agitated; and Helios,

the sun-god, arrested his fiery steeds in their headlong course to

welcome this wonderful emanation from the godhead. Athene was at once

admitted into the assembly of the gods, and henceforth took her place as

the most faithful and sagacious of all her father’s counsellors. This

brave, dauntless maiden, so exactly the essence of all that is noble in

the character of “the father of gods and men,” remained throughout chaste

in word and deed, and kind at heart, without exhibiting any of those

failings which somewhat mar the nobler features in the character of Zeus.

This direct emanation from his own self, justly his favourite child, his

better and purer counterpart, received from him several important

prerogatives. She was permitted to hurl the thunderbolts, to prolong the

life of man, and to bestow the gift of prophecy; in fact Athene was the

only divinity whose authority was equal to that of Zeus himself, and when

he had ceased to visit the earth in person [44]she was empowered by him

to act as his deputy. It was her especial duty to protect the state and

all peaceful associations of mankind, which she possessed the power of

defending when occasion required. She encouraged the maintenance of law

and order, and defended the right on all occasions, for which reason, in

the Trojan war she espouses the cause of the Greeks and exerts all her

influence on their behalf. The Areopagus, a court of justice where

religious causes and murders were tried, was believed to have been

instituted by her, and when both sides happened to have an equal number

of votes she gave the casting-vote in favour of the accused. She was the

patroness of learning, science, and art, more particularly where these

contributed directly towards the welfare of nations. She presided over

all inventions connected with agriculture, invented the plough, and

taught mankind how to use oxen for farming purposes. She also instructed

mankind in the use of numbers, trumpets, chariots, &c., and presided

over the building of the Argo,^[20] thereby encouraging the useful art of

navigation. She also taught the Greeks how to build the wooden horse by

means of which the destruction of Troy was effected.

The safety of cities depended on her care, for which reason her

temples were generally built on the citadels, and she was supposed to

watch over the defence of the walls, fortifications, harbours, &c. A

divinity who so faithfully guarded the best interests of the state, by

not only protecting it from the attacks of enemies, but also by

developing its chief resources of wealth and prosperity, was worthily

chosen as the presiding deity of the state, and in this character as an

essentially political goddess she was called Athene-Polias.

The fact of Athene having been born clad in armour, which merely

signified that her virtue and purity were unassailable, has given rise to

the erroneous supposition that she was the presiding goddess of war; but

a deeper [45]study of her character in all its bearings

proves that, in contradistinction to her brother Ares, the god of war,

who loved strife for its own sake, she only takes up arms to protect the

innocent and deserving against tyrannical oppression. It is true that in

the Iliad we frequently see her on the battlefield fighting valiantly,

and protecting her favourite heroes; but this is always at the command of

Zeus, who even supplies her with arms for the purpose, as it is supposed

that she possessed none of her own. A marked feature in the

representations of this deity is the ægis, that wonderful shield given to

her by her father as a further means of defence, which, when in danger,

she swung so swiftly round and round that it kept at a distance all

antagonistic influences; hence her name Pallas, from pallo, I

swing. In the centre of this shield, which was covered with dragon’s

scales, bordered with serpents, and which she sometimes wore as a

breastplate, was the awe-inspiring head of the Medusa, which had the

effect of turning to stone all beholders.

In addition to the many functions which she exercised in connection

with the state, Athene presided over the two chief departments of

feminine industry, spinning and weaving. In the latter art she herself

displayed unrivalled ability and exquisite taste. She wove her own robe

and that of Hera, which last she is said to have embroidered very richly;

she also gave Jason a cloak wrought by herself, when he set forth in

quest of the Golden Fleece. Being on one occasion challenged to a contest

in this accomplishment by a mortal maiden named Arachne, whom she had

instructed in the art of weaving, she accepted the challenge and was

completely vanquished by her pupil. Angry at her defeat, she struck the

unfortunate maiden on the forehead with the shuttle which she held in her

hand; and Arachne, being of a sensitive nature, was so hurt by this

indignity that she hung herself in despair, and was changed by Athene

into a spider. This goddess is said to have invented the flute,^[21] upon [46]which she played

with considerable talent, until one day, being laughed at by the

assembled gods and goddesses for the contortions which her countenance

assumed during these musical efforts, she hastily ran to a fountain in

order to convince herself whether she deserved their ridicule. Finding to

her intense disgust that such was indeed the fact, she threw the flute

away, and never raised it to her lips again.

Athene is usually represented fully draped; she has a serious and

thoughtful aspect, as though replete with earnestness and wisdom; the

beautiful oval contour of her countenance is adorned by the luxuriance of

her wealth of hair, which is drawn back from the temples and hangs down

in careless grace; she looks the embodiment of strength, grandeur, and

majesty; whilst her broad shoulders and small hips give her a slightly

masculine appearance.

When represented as the war-goddess she appears clad in armour, with a

helmet on her head, from which waves a large plume; she carries the ægis

on her arm, and in her hand a golden staff, which possessed the property

of endowing her chosen favourites with youth and dignity.

Athene was universally worshipped throughout Greece, but was regarded

with special veneration by the Athenians, she being the guardian deity of

Athens. Her most celebrated temple was the Parthenon, which stood on the

[47]Acropolis at Athens, and contained her

world-renowned statue by Phidias, which ranks second only to that of Zeus

by the same great artist. This colossal statue was 39 feet high, and was

composed of ivory and gold; its majestic beauty formed the chief

attraction of the temple. It represented her standing erect, bearing her

spear and shield; in her hand she held an image of Nike, and at her feet

there lay a serpent.

The tree sacred to her was the olive, which she herself produced in a

contest with Poseidon. The olive-tree thus called into existence was

preserved in the temple of Erectheus, on the Acropolis, and is said to

have possessed such marvellous vitality, that when the Persians burned it

after sacking the town it immediately burst forth into new shoots.

The principal festival held in honour of this divinity was the

Panathenæa.

The owl, cock, and serpent were the animals sacred to her, and her

sacrifices were rams, bulls, and cows.

MINERVA.

The Minerva of the Romans was identified with the Pallas-Athene of the

Greeks. Like her she presides over learning and all useful arts, and is

the patroness of the feminine accomplishments of sewing, spinning,

weaving, &c. Schools were under her especial care, and schoolboys,

therefore, had holidays during her festivals (the Greater Quinquatria),

when they always brought a gift to their master, called the Minerval.

It is worthy of notice that the only three divinities [48]worshipped in

the Capitol were Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva, and in their joint honour

the Ludi Maximi or great games were held.

THEMIS.

Themis, who has already been alluded to as the wife of Zeus, was the

daughter of Cronus and Rhea, and personified those divine laws of justice

and order by means of which the well-being and morality of communities

are regulated. She presided over the assemblies of the people and the

laws of hospitality. To her was intrusted the office of convoking the

assembly of the gods, and she was also mistress of ritual and ceremony.

On account of her great wisdom Zeus himself frequently sought her counsel

and acted upon her advice. Themis was a prophetic divinity, and had an

oracle near the river Cephissus in Bœotia.

She is usually represented as being in the full maturity of womanhood,

of fair aspect, and wearing a flowing garment, which drapes her noble,

majestic form; in her right hand she holds the sword of justice, and in

her left the scales, which indicate the impartiality with which every

cause is carefully weighed by her, her eyes being bandaged so that the

personality of the individual should carry no weight with respect to the

verdict.

This divinity is sometimes identified with Tyche, sometimes with

Ananke.

Themis, like so many other Greek divinities, takes the place of a more

ancient deity of the same name who was a daughter of Uranus and Gæa. This

elder Themis inherited from her mother the gift of prophecy, and when she

became merged into her younger representative she transmitted to her this

prophetic power.

HESTIA (Vesta).

Hestia was the daughter of Cronus and Rhea. She was the goddess of

Fire in its first application to the wants of mankind, hence she was

essentially the presiding deity [49]of the domestic hearth and the guardian

spirit of man, and it was her pure and benign influence which was

supposed to protect the sanctity of domestic life.

Now in these early ages the hearth was regarded as the most important

and most sacred portion of the dwelling, probably because the protection

of the fire was an important consideration, for if once permitted to

become extinct, re-ignition was attended with extreme difficulty. In

fact, the hearth was held so sacred that it constituted the sanctum of

the family, for which reason it was always erected in the centre of every

house. It was a few feet in height and was built of stone; the fire was

placed on the top of it, and served the double purpose of preparing the

daily meals, and consuming the family sacrifices. Round this domestic

hearth or altar were gathered the various members of the family, the head

of the house occupying the place of honour nearest the hearth. Here

prayers were said and sacrifices offered, and here also every kind and

loving feeling was fostered, which even extended to the hunted and guilty

stranger, who, if he once succeeded in touching this sacred altar, was

safe from pursuit and punishment, and was henceforth placed under the

protection of the family. Any crime committed within the sacred precincts

of the domestic hearth was invariably visited by death.

In Grecian cities there was a common hall, called the Prytaneum, in

which the members of the government had their meals at the expense of the

state, and here too was the Hestia, or public hearth, with its fire, by

means of which those meals were prepared. It was customary for emigrants

to take with them a portion of this sacred fire, which they jealously

guarded and brought with them to their new home, where it served as a

connecting link between the young Greek colony and the mother country.

Hestia is generally represented standing, and in accordance with the

dignity and sanctity of her character, always appears fully draped. Her

countenance is distinguished by a serene gravity of expression. [50]

VESTA.

Vesta occupies a distinguished place among the earlier divinities of

the Romans. Her temple in Rome, containing as it were the hearthstone of

the nation, stood close beside the palace of Numa Pompilius.

On her altar burned the never-ceasing fire, which was tended by her

priestesses, the Vestal Virgins.^[22]

The temple of Vesta was circular in form, and contained that sacred

and highly prized treasure the Palladium of Troy.^[23]

The great festival in honour of Vesta, called the Vestalia, was

celebrated on the 9th of June.

DEMETER (Ceres).

Demeter (from Ge-meter, earth-mother) was the daughter of

Cronus and Rhea.^[24] She

represented that portion of Gæa (the whole solid earth) which we call the

earth’s crust, and which produces all vegetation. As goddess of

agriculture, field-fruits, plenty, and productiveness, she was the

sustainer of material life, and was therefore a divinity of great

importance. When ancient Gæa lost, with Uranus, her position as a ruling

divinity, she abdicated her sway in favour of her daughter Rhea, who

henceforth inherited the powers which her mother had previously

possessed, receiving in her place the honour and worship of mankind. In a

very old poem Gæa is accordingly described as retiring to a cavern in the

bowels [51]of the earth, where she sits in the lap of

her daughter, slumbering, moaning, and nodding for ever and ever.

It is necessary to keep clearly in view the distinctive difference

between the three great earth-goddesses Gæa, Rhea, and Demeter. Gæa

represents the earth as a whole, with its mighty subterranean forces;

Rhea is that productive power which causes vegetation to spring forth,

thus sustaining men and animals; Demeter, by presiding over agriculture,

directs and utilizes Rhea’s productive powers. But in later times, when

Rhea, like other ancient divinities, loses her importance as a ruling

deity, Demeter assumes all her functions and attributes, and then becomes

the goddess of the life-producing and life-maintaining earth-crust. We

must bear in mind the fact that man in his primitive state knew neither

how to sow nor how to till the ground; when, therefore, he had exhausted

the pastures which surrounded him he was compelled to seek others which

were as yet unreaped; thus, roaming constantly from one place to another,

settled habitations, and consequently civilizing influences, were

impossible. Demeter, however, by introducing a knowledge of agriculture,

put an end, at once and for ever, to that nomadic life which was now no

longer necessary.

The favour of Demeter was believed to bring mankind rich harvests and

fruitful crops, whereas her displeasure caused blight, drought, and

famine. The island of Sicily was supposed to be under her especial

protection, and there she was regarded with particular veneration, the

Sicilians naturally attributing the wonderful fertility of their country

to the partiality of the goddess.

Demeter is usually represented as a woman of noble [52]bearing and

majestic appearance, tall, matronly, and dignified, with beautiful golden

hair, which falls in rippling curls over her stately shoulders, the

yellow locks being emblematical of the ripened ears of corn. Sometimes

she appears seated in a chariot drawn by winged dragons, at others she

stands erect, her figure drawn up to its full height, and always fully

draped; she bears a sheaf of wheat-ears in one hand and a lighted torch

in the other. The wheat-ears are not unfrequently replaced by a bunch of

poppies, with which her brows are also garlanded, though sometimes she

merely wears a simple riband in her hair.

Demeter, as the wife of Zeus, became the mother of Persephone

(Proserpine), to whom she was so tenderly attached that her whole life

was bound up in her, and she knew no happiness except in her society. One

day, however, whilst Persephone was gathering flowers in a meadow,

attended by the ocean-nymphs, she saw to her surprise a beautiful

narcissus, from the stem of which sprang forth a hundred blossoms.

Drawing near to examine this lovely flower, whose exquisite scent

perfumed the air, she stooped down to gather it, suspecting no evil, when

a yawning abyss opened at her feet, and Aïdes, the grim ruler of the

lower world, appeared from its depths, seated in his dazzling chariot

drawn by four black horses. Regardless of her tears and the shrieks of

her female attendants, Aïdes seized the terrified maiden, and bore her

away to the gloomy realms over which he reigned in melancholy grandeur.

Helios, the all-seeing sun-god, and Hecate, a mysterious and very ancient

divinity, alone heard her cries for aid, but were powerless to help her.

When Demeter became conscious of her loss her grief was intense, and she

refused to be comforted. She knew not where to seek for her child, but

feeling that repose and inaction were impossible, she set out on her

weary search, taking with her two torches which she lighted in the flames

of Mount Etna to guide her on her way. For nine long days and nights she

wandered on, inquiring of every one she met for tidings of her child.

[53]But

all was in vain! Neither gods nor men could give her the comfort which

her soul so hungered for. At last, on the tenth day, the disconsolate

mother met Hecate, who informed her that she had heard her daughter’s

cries, but knew not who it was that had borne her away. By Hecate’s

advice Demeter consulted Helios, whose all-seeing eye nothing escapes,

and from him she learnt that it was Zeus himself who had permitted Aïdes

to seize Persephone, and transport her to the lower world in order that

she might become his wife. Indignant with Zeus for having given his

sanction to the abduction of his daughter, and filled with the bitterest

sorrow, she abandoned her home in Olympus, and refused all heavenly food.

Disguising herself as an old woman, she descended upon earth, and

commenced a weary pilgrimage among mankind. One evening she arrived at a

place called Eleusis, in Attica, and sat down to rest herself near a well

beneath the shade of an olive-tree. The youthful daughters of Celeus, the

king of the country, came with their pails of brass to draw water from

this well, and seeing that the tired wayfarer appeared faint and

dispirited, they spoke kindly to her, asking who she was, and whence she

came. Demeter replied that she had made her escape from pirates, who had

captured her, and added that she would feel grateful for a home with any

worthy family, whom she would be willing to serve in a menial capacity.

The princesses, on hearing this, begged Demeter to have a moment’s

patience while they returned home and consulted their mother, Metaneira.

They soon brought the joyful intelligence that she was desirous of

securing her services as nurse to her infant son Demophoon, or

Triptolemus. When Demeter arrived at the house a radiant light suddenly

illumined her, which circumstance so overawed Metaneira that she treated

the unknown stranger with the greatest respect, and hospitably offered

her food and drink. But Demeter, still grief-worn and dejected, refused

her friendly offers, and held herself apart from the social board. At

length, however, the maid-servant Iambe succeeded, by means [54]of playful jests

and merriment, in somewhat dispelling the grief of the sorrowing mother,

causing her at times to smile in spite of herself, and even inducing her

to partake of a mixture of barley-meal, mint, and water, which was

prepared according to the directions of the goddess herself. Time passed

on, and the young child throve amazingly under the care of his kind and

judicious nurse, who, however, gave him no food, but anointed him daily

with ambrosia, and every night laid him secretly in the fire in order to

render him immortal and exempt from old age. But, unfortunately, this

benevolent design on the part of Demeter was frustrated by Metaneira

herself, whose curiosity, one night, impelled her to watch the

proceedings of the mysterious being who nursed her child. When to her

horror she beheld her son placed in the flames, she shrieked aloud.

Demeter, incensed at this untimely interruption, instantly withdrew the

child, and throwing him on the ground, revealed herself in her true

character. The bent and aged form had vanished, and in its place there

stood a bright and beauteous being, whose golden locks streamed over her

shoulders in richest luxuriance, her whole aspect bespeaking dignity and

majesty. She told the awe-struck Metaneira that she was the goddess

Demeter, and had intended to make her son immortal, but that her fatal

curiosity had rendered this impossible, adding, however, that the child,

having slept in her arms, and been nursed on her lap, should ever command

the respect and esteem of mankind. She then desired that a temple and

altar should be erected to her on a neighbouring hill by the people of

Eleusis, promising that she herself would direct them how to perform the

sacred rites and ceremonies, which should be observed in her honour. With

these words she took her departure never to return.

Obedient to her commands, Celeus called together a meeting of his

people, and built the temple on the spot which the goddess had indicated.

It was soon completed, and Demeter took up her abode in it, but her heart

was still sad for the loss of her daughter, and the whole world felt the

influence of her grief and dejection. This was [55]indeed a terrible year

for mankind. Demeter no longer smiled on the earth she was wont to bless,

and though the husbandman sowed the grain, and the groaning oxen ploughed

the fields, no harvest rewarded their labour. All was barren, dreary

desolation. The world was threatened with famine, and the gods with the

loss of their accustomed honours and sacrifices; it became evident,

therefore, to Zeus himself that some measures must be adopted to appease

the anger of the goddess. He accordingly despatched Iris and many of the

other gods and goddesses to implore Demeter to return to Olympus; but all

their prayers were fruitless. The incensed goddess swore that until her

daughter was restored to her she would not allow the grain to spring

forth from the earth. At length Zeus sent Hermes, his faithful messenger,

to the lower world with a petition to Aïdes, urgently entreating him to

restore Persephone to the arms of her disconsolate mother. When he

arrived in the gloomy realms of Aïdes, Hermes found him seated on a

throne with the beautiful Persephone beside him, sorrowfully bewailing

her unhappy fate. On learning his errand, Aïdes consented to resign

Persephone, who joyfully prepared to follow the messenger of the gods to

the abode of life and light. Before taking leave of her husband, he

presented to her a few seeds of pomegranate, which in her excitement she

thoughtlessly swallowed, and this simple act, as the sequel will show,

materially affected her whole future life. The meeting between mother and

child was one of unmixed rapture, and for the moment all the past was

forgotten. The loving mother’s happiness would now have been complete had

not Aïdes asserted his rights. These were, that if any immortal had

tasted food in his realms they were bound to remain there for ever. Of

course the ruler of the lower world had to prove this assertion. This,

however, he found no difficulty in doing, as Ascalaphus, the son of

Acheron and Orphne, was his witness to the fact.^[25] Zeus, pitying the disappointment of

Demeter at finding [56]her hopes thus blighted, succeeded in

effecting a compromise by inducing his brother Aïdes to allow Persephone

to spend six months of the year with the gods above, whilst during the

other six she was to be the joyless companion of her grim lord below.

Accompanied by her daughter, the beautiful Persephone, Demeter now

resumed her long-abandoned dwelling in Olympus; the sympathetic earth

responded gaily to her bright smiles, the corn at once sprang forth from

the ground in fullest plenty, the trees, which late were sered and bare,

now donned their brightest emerald robes, and the flowers, so long

imprisoned in the hard, dry soil, filled the whole air with their

fragrant perfume. Thus ends this charming story, which was a favourite

theme with all the classic authors.

It is very possible that the poets who first created this graceful

myth merely intended it as an allegory to illustrate the change of

seasons; in the course of time, however, a literal meaning became

attached to this and similar poetical fancies, and thus the people of

Greece came to regard as an article of religious belief what, in the

first instance, was nothing more than a poetic simile.

In the temple erected to Demeter at Eleusis, the famous Eleusinian

Mysteries were instituted by the goddess herself. It is exceedingly

difficult, as in the case of all secret societies, to discover anything

with certainty concerning these sacred rites. The most plausible

supposition is that the doctrines taught by the priests to the favoured

few whom they initiated, were religious truths which were deemed unfit

for the uninstructed mind of the multitude. For instance, it is supposed

that the myth of Demeter and Persephone was explained by the teachers of

the Mysteries to signify the temporary loss which mother earth sustains

every year when the icy breath of winter robs her of her flowers and

fruits and grain.

It is believed that in later times a still deeper meaning was conveyed

by this beautiful myth, viz., the doctrine of the immortality of the

soul. The grain, which, as it were, remains dead for a time in the dark

earth, only [57]to rise one day dressed in a newer and

lovelier garb, was supposed to symbolize the soul, which, after death,

frees itself from corruption, to live again under a better and purer

form.

When Demeter instituted the Eleusinian Mysteries, Celeus and his

family were the first to be initiated, Celeus himself being appointed

high-priest. His son Triptolemus and his daughters, who acted as

priestesses, assisted him in the duties of his sacred office. The

Mysteries were celebrated by the Athenians every five years, and were,

for a long time, their exclusive privilege. They took place by

torchlight, and were conducted with the greatest solemnity.

In order to spread abroad the blessings which agriculture confers,

Demeter presented Triptolemus with her chariot drawn by winged dragons,

and, giving him some grains of corn, desired him to journey through the

world, teaching mankind the arts of agriculture and husbandry.

Demeter exercised great severity towards those who incurred her

displeasure. We find examples of this in the stories of Stellio and

Eresicthon. Stellio was a youth who ridiculed the goddess for the

eagerness with which she was eating a bowl of porridge, when weary and

faint in the vain search for her daughter. Resolved that he should never

again have an opportunity of thus offending, she angrily threw into his

face the remainder of the food, and changed him into a spotted

lizard.

Eresicthon, son of Triopas, had drawn upon himself the anger of

Demeter by cutting down her sacred groves, for which she punished him

with a constant and insatiable hunger. He sold all his possessions in

order to satisfy his cravings, and was forced at last to devour his own

limbs. His daughter Metra, who was devotedly attached to him, possessed

the power of transforming herself into a variety of different animals. By

this means she contrived to support her father, who sold her again and

again each time she assumed a different form, and thus he dragged on a

pitiful existence. [58]

CERES.

The Roman Ceres is actually the Greek Demeter under another name, her

attributes, worship, festivals, &c., being precisely identical.

The Romans were indebted to Sicily for this divinity, her worship

having been introduced by the Greek colonists who settled there.

The Cerealia, or festivals in honour of Ceres, commenced on the 12th

of April, and lasted several days.

APHRODITE (Venus).

Aphrodite (from aphros, sea-foam, and dite, issued), the

daughter of Zeus and a sea-nymph called Dione, was the goddess of Love

and Beauty.

Dione, being a sea-nymph, gave birth to her daughter beneath the

waves; but the child of the heaven-inhabiting Zeus was forced to ascend

from the ocean-depths and mount to the snow-capped summits of Olympus, in

order to breathe that ethereal and most refined atmosphere which pertains

to the celestial gods.

Aphrodite was the mother of Eros (Cupid), the god of Love, also of

Æneas, the great Trojan hero and the head of that Greek colony which

settled in Italy, and from which arose the city of Rome. As a mother

Aphrodite claims our sympathy for the tenderness she exhibits towards her

children. Homer tells us in his Iliad, how, when Æneas was wounded in

battle, she came to his assistance, regardless of personal danger, and

was herself severely wounded in attempting to save his life. [59]

Aphrodite was tenderly attached to a lovely youth, called Adonis,

whose exquisite beauty has become proverbial. He was a motherless babe,

and Aphrodite, taking pity on him, placed him in a chest and intrusted

him to the care of Persephone, who became so fond of the beautiful youth

that she refused to part with him. Zeus, being appealed to by the rival

foster-mothers, decided that Adonis should spend four months of every

year with Persephone, four with Aphrodite, whilst during the remaining

four months he should be left to his own devices. He became, however, so

attached to Aphrodite that he voluntarily devoted to her the time at his

own disposal. Adonis was killed, during the chase, by a wild boar, to the

great grief of Aphrodite, who bemoaned his loss so persistently that

Aïdes, moved with pity, permitted him to pass six months of every year

with her, whilst the remaining half of the year was spent by him in the

lower world.

Aphrodite possessed a magic girdle (the famous cestus) which

she frequently lent to unhappy maidens suffering from the pangs of

unrequited love, as it was endowed with the power of inspiring affection

for the wearer, whom it invested with every attribute of grace, beauty,

and fascination.

Her usual attendants are the Charites or Graces (Euphrosyne, Aglaia,

and Thalia), who are represented undraped and intertwined in a loving

embrace.

In Hesiod’s Theogony she is supposed to belong to the more

ancient divinities, and, whilst those of later date are represented as

having descended one from another, and all more or less from Zeus,

Aphrodite has a variously-accounted-for, yet independent origin.

The most poetical version of her birth is that when Uranus was wounded

by his son Cronus, his blood mingled with the foam of the sea, whereupon

the bubbling waters at once assumed a rosy tint, and from their depths

arose, in all the surpassing glory of her loveliness, Aphrodite, goddess

of love and beauty! Shaking her long, fair tresses, the water-drops

rolled down into the beautiful [60]sea-shell in which she stood, and became

transformed into pure glistening pearls. Wafted by the soft and balmy

breezes, she floated on to Cythera, and was thence transported to the

island of Cyprus. Lightly she stepped on shore, and under the gentle

pressure of her delicate foot the dry and rigid sand became transformed

into a verdant meadow, where every varied shade of colour and every sweet

odour charmed the senses. The whole island of Cyprus became clothed with

verdure, and greeted this fairest of all created beings with a glad smile

of friendly welcome. Here she was received by the Seasons, who decked her

with garments of immortal fabric, encircling her fair brow with a wreath

of purest gold, whilst from her ears depended costly rings, and a

glittering chain embraced her swan-like throat. And now, arrayed in all

the panoply of her irresistible charms, the nymphs escort her to the

dazzling halls of Olympus, where she is received with ecstatic enthusiasm

by the admiring gods and goddesses. The gods all vied with each other in

aspiring to the honour of her hand, but Hephæstus became the envied

possessor of this lovely being, who, however, proved as faithless as she

was beautiful, and caused her husband much unhappiness, owing to the

preference she showed at various times for some of the other gods and

also for mortal men.

The celebrated Venus of Milo, now in the Louvre, is an exquisite

statue of this divinity. The head is beautifully formed; the rich waves

of hair descend on her rather low but broad forehead and are caught up

gracefully in a small knot at the back of the head; the expression of the

face is most bewitching, and bespeaks the perfect [61]joyousness of a happy

nature combined with the dignity of a goddess; the drapery falls in

careless folds from the waist downwards, and her whole attitude is the

embodiment of all that is graceful and lovely in womanhood. She is of

medium height, and the form is perfect in its symmetry and faultless

proportions.

Aphrodite is also frequently represented in the act of confining her

dripping locks in a knot, whilst her attendant nymphs envelop her in a

gauzy veil.

The animals sacred to her were the dove, swan, swallow, and sparrow.

Her favourite plants were the myrtle, apple-tree, rose, and poppy.

The worship of Aphrodite is supposed to have been introduced into

Greece from Central Asia. There is no doubt that she was originally

identical with the famous Astarté, the Ashtoreth of the Bible, against

whose idolatrous worship and infamous rites the prophets of old hurled

forth their sublime and powerful anathemas.

VENUS.

The Venus of the Romans was identified with the Aphrodite of the

Greeks. The worship of this divinity was only established in Rome in

comparatively later times. Annual festivals, called Veneralia, were held

in her honour, and the month of April, when flowers and plants spring

forth afresh, was sacred to her. She was worshipped as Venus Cloacina (or

the Purifier), and as Venus Myrtea (or the myrtle goddess), an epithet

derived from the myrtle, the emblem of Love.

HELIOS (Sol).

The worship of Helios was introduced into Greece from Asia. According

to the earliest conceptions of the Greeks he was not only the sun-god,

but also the personification of life and all life-giving power, for light

is well known to be an indispensable condition of all healthy terrestrial

life. The worship of the sun was originally very widely spread, [62]not only

among the early Greeks themselves, but also among other primitive

nations. To us the sun is simply the orb of light, which, high above our

heads, performs each day the functions assigned to it by a mighty and

invisible Power; we can, therefore, form but a faint idea of the

impression which it produced upon the spirit of a people whose intellect

was still in its infancy, and who believed, with child-like simplicity,

that every power of nature was a divinity, which, according as its

character was baleful or beneficent, worked for the destruction or

benefit of the human race.

Helios, who was the son of the Titans Hyperion and Theia, is described

as rising every morning in the east, preceded by his sister Eos (the

Dawn), who, with her rosy fingers, paints the tips of the mountains, and

draws aside that misty veil through which her brother is about to appear.

When he has burst forth in all the glorious light of day, Eos disappears,

and Helios now drives his flame-darting chariot along the accustomed

track. This chariot, which is of burnished gold, is drawn by four

fire-breathing steeds, behind which the young god stands erect with

flashing eyes, his head surrounded with rays, holding in one hand the

reins of those fiery coursers which in all hands save his are

unmanageable. When towards evening he descends the curve^[26] in order to cool his burning forehead

in the waters of the deep sea, he is followed closely by his sister

Selene (the Moon), who is now prepared to take charge of the world, and

illumine with her silver crescent the dusky night. Helios meanwhile rests

from his labours, and, reclining softly on the cool fragrant couch

prepared for him by the sea-nymphs, recruits himself for another

life-giving, joy-inspiring, and beauteous day.

It may appear strange that, although the Greeks considered the earth

to be a flat circle, no explanation is given of the fact that Helios

sinks down in the far [63]west regularly every evening, and yet

reappears as regularly every morning in the east. Whether he was supposed

to pass through Tartarus, and thus regain the opposite extremity through

the bowels of the earth, or whether they thought he possessed any other

means of making this transit, there is not a line in either Homer or

Hesiod to prove. In later times, however, the poets invented the graceful

fiction, that when Helios had finished his course, and reached the

western side of the curve, a winged-boat, or cup, which had been made for

him by Hephæstus, awaited him there, and conveyed him rapidly, with his

glorious equipage, to the east, where he recommenced his bright and

glowing career.

This divinity was invoked as a witness when a solemn oath was taken,

as it was believed that nothing escaped his all-seeing eye, and it was

this fact which enabled him to inform Demeter of the fate of her

daughter, as already related. He was supposed to possess flocks and herds

in various localities, which may possibly be intended to represent the

days and nights of the year, or the stars of heaven.

Helios is said to have loved Clytie, a daughter of Oceanus, who

ardently returned his affection; but in the course of time the fickle

sun-god transferred his devotion to Leucothea, the daughter of Orchamus,

king of the eastern countries, which so angered the forsaken Clytie that

she informed Orchamus of his daughter’s attachment, and he punished her

by inhumanly burying her alive. Helios, overcome with grief, endeavoured,

by every means in his power, to recall her to life. At last, finding all

his efforts unavailing, he sprinkled her grave with heavenly nectar, and

immediately there sprang forth from the spot a shoot of frankincense,

which spread around its aromatic perfume.

The jealous Clytie gained nothing by her cruel conduct, for the

sun-god came to her no more. Inconsolable at his loss, she threw herself

upon the ground, and refused all sustenance. For nine long days she

turned her face towards the glorious god of day, as he moved along the

[64]heavens, till at length her limbs became

rooted in the ground, and she was transformed into a flower, which ever

turns towards the sun.

Helios married Perse, daughter of Oceanus, and their children were,

Aëtes, king of Colchis (celebrated in the legend of the Argonauts as the

possessor of the Golden Fleece), and Circe, the renowned sorceress.

Helios had another son named Phaethon, whose mother was Clymene, one

of the Oceanides. The youth was very beautiful, and a great favourite

with Aphrodite, who intrusted him with the care of one of her temples,

which flattering proof of her regard caused him to become vain and

presumptuous. His friend Epaphus, son of Zeus and Io, endeavoured to

check his youthful vanity by pretending to disbelieve his assertion that

the sun-god was his father. Phaethon, full of resentment, and eager to be

able to refute the calumny, hastened to his mother Clymene, and besought

her to tell him whether Helios was really his father. Moved by his

entreaties, and at the same time angry at the reproach of Epaphus,

Clymene pointed to the glorious sun, then shining down upon them, and

assured her son that in that bright orb he beheld the author of his

being, adding that if he had still any doubt, he might visit the radiant

dwelling of the great god of light and inquire for himself. Overjoyed at

his mother’s reassuring words, and following the directions she gave him,

Phaethon quickly wended his way to his father’s palace.

As he entered the palace of the sun-god the dazzling rays almost

blinded him, and prevented him from approaching the throne on which his

father was seated, surrounded by the Hours, Days, Months, Years, and

Seasons. Helios, who with his all-seeing eye had watched him from afar,

removed his crown of glittering rays, and bade him not to be afraid, but

to draw near to his father. Encouraged by this kind reception, Phaethon

entreated him to bestow upon him such a proof of his love, that all the

world might be convinced that he was indeed his son; whereupon Helios

desired him to ask any favour he pleased, [65]and swore by the Styx

that it should be granted. The impetuous youth immediately requested

permission to drive the chariot of the sun for one whole day. His father

listened horror-struck to this presumptuous demand, and by representing

the many dangers which would beset his path, endeavoured to dissuade him

from so perilous an undertaking; but his son, deaf to all advice, pressed

his point with such pertinacity, that Helios was reluctantly compelled to

lead him to the chariot. Phaethon paused for a moment to admire the

beauty of the glittering equipage, the gift of the god of fire, who had

formed it of gold, and ornamented it with precious stones, which

reflected the rays of the sun. And now Helios, seeing his sister, the

Dawn, opening her doors in the rosy east, ordered the Hours to yoke the

horses. The goddesses speedily obeyed the command, and the father then

anointed the face of his son with a sacred balm, to enable him to endure

the burning flames which issued from the nostrils of the steeds, and

sorrowfully placing his crown of rays upon his head, desired him to

ascend the chariot.

The eager youth joyfully took his place and grasped the coveted reins,

but no sooner did the fiery coursers of the sun feel the inexperienced

hand which attempted to guide them, than they became restive and

unmanageable. Wildly they rushed out of their accustomed track, now

soaring so high as to threaten the heavens with destruction, now

descending so low as nearly to set the earth on fire. At last the

unfortunate charioteer, blinded with the glare, and terrified at the

awful devastation he had caused, dropped the reins from his trembling

hands. Mountains and forests were in flames, rivers and streams were

dried up, and a general conflagration was imminent. The scorched earth

now called on Zeus for help, who hurled his thunderbolt at Phaethon, and

with a flash of lightning brought the fiery steeds to a standstill. The

lifeless body of the youth fell headlong into the river Eridanus,^[27] where it was received and

buried by the [66]nymphs of the stream. His sisters mourned so

long for him that they were transformed by Zeus into poplars, and the

tears they shed, falling into the waters, became drops of clear,

transparent amber. Cycnus, the faithful friend of the unhappy Phaethon,

felt such overwhelming grief at his terrible fate, that he pined and

wasted away. The gods, moved with compassion, transformed him into a

swan, which for ever brooded over the fatal spot where the waters had

closed over the head of his unfortunate friend.

The chief seat of the worship of Helios was the island of Rhodes,

which according to the following myth was his especial territory. At the

time of the Titanomachia, when the gods were dividing the world by lot,

Helios happened to be absent, and consequently received no share. He,

therefore, complained to Zeus, who proposed to have a new allotment, but

this Helios would not allow, saying, that as he pursued his daily

journey, his penetrating eye had beheld a lovely, fertile island lying

beneath the waves of the ocean, and that if the immortals would swear to

give him the undisturbed possession of this spot, he would be content to

accept it as his share of the universe. The gods took the oath, whereupon

the island of Rhodes immediately raised itself above the surface of the

waters.

The famous Colossus of Rhodes, which was one of the seven wonders of

the world, was erected in honour of Helios. This wonderful statue was 105

feet high, and was formed entirely of brass; it formed the entrance to

the harbour at Rhodes, and the largest vessel could easily sail between

the legs, which stood on moles, each side of the harbour. Though so

gigantic, it was perfectly proportioned in every part. Some idea of [67]its size

may be gained from the fact that very few people were able to span the

thumb of this statue with their arms. In the interior of the Colossus was

a winding staircase leading to the top, from the summit of which, by

means of a telescope, the coast of Syria, and also the shores of Egypt,

are said to have been visible.^[28]

EOS (Aurora).

Eos, the Dawn, like her brother Helios, whose advent she always

announced, was also deified by the early Greeks. She too had her own

chariot, which she drove across the vast horizon both morning and night,

before and after the sun-god. Hence she is not merely the personification

of the rosy morn, but also of twilight, for which reason her palace is

placed in the west, on the island Ææa. The abode of Eos is a magnificent

structure, surrounded by flowery meads and velvety lawns, where nymphs

and other immortal beings, wind in and out in the mazy figures of the

dance, whilst the music of a sweetly-tuned melody accompanies their

graceful, gliding movements.

Eos is described by the poets as a beautiful maiden with rosy arms and

fingers, and large wings, whose plumage is of an ever-changing hue; she

bears a star on her forehead, and a torch in her hand. Wrapping round her

the rich folds of her violet-tinged mantle, she leaves her couch before

the break of day, and herself yokes her two horses, Lampetus and

Phaethon, to her glorious chariot. She then hastens with active

cheerfulness to open the gates of heaven, in order to herald the approach

of her brother, the god of day, whilst the tender plants and flowers,

revived by the morning dew, lift their heads to welcome her as she

passes.

[68]

Eos first married the Titan Astræus,^[29] and their children were Heosphorus

(Hesperus), the evening star, and the winds. She afterwards became united

to Tithonus, son of Laomedon, king of Troy, who had won her affection by

his unrivalled beauty; and Eos, unhappy at the thought of their being

ever separated by death, obtained for him from Zeus the gift of

immortality, forgetting, however, to add to it that of eternal youth. The

consequence was that when, in the course of time, Tithonus grew old and

decrepid, and lost all the beauty which had won her admiration, Eos

became disgusted with his infirmities, and at last shut him up in a

chamber, where soon little else was left of him but his voice, which had

now sunk into a weak, feeble quaver. According to some of the later

poets, he became so weary of his cheerless and miserable existence, that

he entreated to be allowed to die. This was, however, impossible; but

Eos, pitying his unhappy condition, exerted her divine power, and changed

him into a grasshopper, which is, as it were, all voice, and whose

monotonous, ceaseless chirpings may not inaptly be compared to the

meaningless babble of extreme old age.

PHŒBUS-APOLLO.

Phœbus-Apollo, the god of Light, Prophecy, Music, Poetry, and

the Arts and Sciences, is by far the noblest conception within the whole

range of Greek mythology, and his worship, which not only extended to all

the states of Greece, but also to Asia Minor and to every Greek colony

throughout the world, stands out among the most ancient and

strongly-marked features of Grecian history, and exerted a more decided

influence over the Greek nation, than that of any other deity, not

excepting Zeus himself.

Apollo was the son of Zeus and Leto, and was born beneath the shade of

a palm tree which grew at the foot [69]of Mount Cynthus, on the

barren and rocky island of Delos. The poets tell us that the earth smiled

when the young god first beheld the light of day, and that Delos became

so proud and exultant at the honour thus conferred upon her, that she

covered herself with golden flowers; swans surrounded the island, and the

Delian nymphs celebrated his birth with songs of joy.

The unhappy Leto, driven to Delos by the relentless persecutions of

Hera, was not long permitted to enjoy her haven of refuge. Being still

tormented by her enemy, the young mother was once more obliged to fly;

she therefore resigned the charge of her new-born babe to the goddess

Themis, who carefully wrapped the helpless infant in swaddling-clothes,

and fed him with nectar and ambrosia; but he had no sooner partaken of

the heavenly food than, to the amazement of the goddess, he burst asunder

the bands which confined his infant limbs, and springing to his feet,

appeared before her as a full-grown youth of divine strength and beauty.

He now demanded a lyre and a bow, declaring that henceforth he would

announce to mankind the will of his father Zeus. “The golden lyre,” said

he, “shall be my friend, the bent bow my delight, and in oracles will I

foretell the dark future.” With these words he ascended to Olympus, where

he was received with joyful acclamations into the assembly of the

celestial gods, who acknowledged him as the most beautiful and glorious

of all the sons of Zeus.

Phœbus-Apollo was the god of light in a twofold [70]signification:

first, as representing the great orb of day which illumines the world;

and secondly, as the heavenly light which animates the soul of man. He

inherited his function as sun-god from Helios, with whom, in later times,

he was so completely identified, that the personality of the one became

gradually merged in that of the other. We, accordingly, find Helios

frequently confounded with Apollo, myths belonging to the former

attributed to the latter; and with some tribes—the Ionic, for

instance—so complete is this identification, that Apollo is called

by them Helios-Apollo.

As the divinity whose power is developed in the broad light of day, he

brings joy and delight to nature, and health and prosperity to man. By

the influence of his warm and gentle rays he disperses the noxious

vapours of the night, assists the grain to ripen and the flowers to

bloom.

But although, as god of the sun, he is a life-giving and

life-preserving power, who, by his genial influence, dispels the cold of

winter, he is, at the same time, the god who, by means of his fiercely

darting rays, could spread disease and send sudden death to men and

animals; and it is to this phase of his character that we must look for

the explanation of his being considered, in conjunction with his

twin-sister, Artemis (as moon-goddess), a divinity of death. The brother

and sister share this function between them, he taking man and she woman

as her aim, and those especially who died in the bloom of youth, or at an

advanced age, were believed to have been killed by their gentle arrows.

But Apollo did not always send an easy death. We see in the Iliad

how, when angry with the Greeks, the “god of the silver bow” strode down

from Olympus, with his quiver full of death-bringing darts, and sent a

raging pestilence into their camp. For nine days he let fly his fatal

arrows, first on animals and then on men, till the air became darkened

with the smoke from the funeral pyres.

In his character as god of light, Phœbus-Apollo is the

protecting deity of shepherds, because it is he who warms [71]the fields and

meadows, and gives rich pastures to the flocks, thereby gladdening the

heart of the herdsman.

As the temperate heat of the sun exercises so invigorating an effect

on man and animals, and promotes the growth of those medicinal herbs and

vegetable productions necessary for the cure of diseases,

Phœbus-Apollo was supposed to possess the power of restoring life

and health; hence he was regarded as the god of healing; but this feature

in his character we shall find more particularly developed in his son

Asclepius (Æsculapius), the veritable god of the healing art.

Pursuing our analysis of the various phases in the character of

Phœbus-Apollo, we find that with the first beams of his genial

light, all nature awakens to renewed life, and the woods re-echo with the

jubilant sound of the untaught lays, warbled by thousands of feathered

choristers. Hence, by a natural inference, he is the god of music, and

as, according to the belief of the ancients, the inspirations of genius

were inseparably connected with the glorious light of heaven, he is also

the god of poetry, and acts as the special patron of the arts and

sciences. Apollo is himself the heavenly musician among the Olympic gods,

whose banquets are gladdened by the wondrous strains which he produces

from his favourite instrument, the seven-stringed lyre. In the cultus of

Apollo, music formed a distinguishing feature. All sacred dances, and

even the sacrifices in his honour, were performed to the sound of musical

instruments; and it is, in a great measure, owing to the influence which

the music in his worship exercised on the Greek nation, that Apollo came

to be regarded as the leader of the nine Muses, the legitimate divinities

of poetry and song. In this character he is called Musagetes, and is

always represented robed in a long flowing garment; his lyre, to the

tones of which he appears to be singing, is suspended by a band across

the chest; his head is encircled by a wreath of laurel, and his long

hair, streaming down over his shoulders, gives him a somewhat effeminate

appearance.

And now we must view the glorious god of light under [72]another, and (as

far as regards his influence over the Greek nation) a much more important

aspect; for, in historical times, all the other functions and attributes

of Apollo sink into comparative insignificance before the great power

which he exercised as god of prophecy. It is true that all Greek gods

were endowed, to a certain extent, with the faculty of foretelling future

events; but Apollo, as sun-god, was the concentration of all prophetic

power, as it was supposed that nothing escaped his all-seeing eye, which

penetrated the most hidden recesses, and laid bare the secrets which lay

concealed behind the dark veil of the future.

We have seen that when Apollo assumed his god-like form, he took his

place among the immortals; but he had not long enjoyed the rapturous

delights of Olympus, before he felt within him an ardent desire to fulfil

his great mission of interpreting to mankind the will of his mighty

father. He accordingly descended to earth, and travelled through many

countries, seeking a fitting site upon which to establish an oracle. At

length he reached the southern side of the rocky heights of Parnassus,

beneath which lay the harbour of Crissa. Here, under the overhanging

cliff, he found a secluded spot, where, from the most ancient times,

there had existed an oracle, in which Gæa herself had revealed the future

to man, and which, in Deucalion’s time, she had resigned to Themis. It

was guarded by the huge serpent Python, the scourge of the surrounding

neighbourhood, and the terror alike of men and cattle. The young god,

full of confidence in his unerring aim, attacked and slew the monster

with his arrows, thus freeing land and people from their mighty

enemy.

The grateful inhabitants, anxious to do honour to their deliverer,

flocked round Apollo, who proceeded to mark out a plan for a temple, and,

with the assistance of numbers of eager volunteers, a suitable edifice

was soon erected. It now became necessary to choose ministers, who would

offer up sacrifices, interpret his prophecies to the people, and take

charge of the temple. Looking round, he saw in the far distance a vessel

bound from Crete to the [73]Peloponnesus, and determined to avail

himself of her crew for his service. Assuming the shape of an enormous

dolphin, he agitated the waters to such a degree, that the ship was

tossed violently to and fro, to the great alarm of the mariners; at the

same time he raised a mighty wind, which drove the ship into the harbour

of Crissa, where she ran aground. The terrified sailors dared not set

foot on shore; but Apollo, under the form of a vigorous youth, stepped

down to the vessel, revealed himself in his true character, and informed

them that it was he who had driven them to Crissa, in order that they

might become his priests, and serve him in his temple. Arrived at the

sacred fane, he instructed them how to perform the services in his

honour, and desired them to worship him under the name of

Apollo-Delphinios, because he had first appeared to them under the form

of a dolphin. Thus was established the far-famed oracle of Delphi, the

only institution of the kind which was not exclusively national, for it

was consulted by Lydians, Phrygians, Etruscans, Romans, &c., and, in

fact, was held in the highest repute all over the world. In obedience to

its decrees, the laws of Lycurgus were introduced, and the earliest Greek

colonies founded. No cities were built without first consulting the

Delphic oracle, for it was believed that Apollo took special delight in

the founding of cities, the first stone of which he laid in person; nor

was any enterprise ever undertaken, without inquiring at this sacred fane

as to its probable success.

But that which brought Apollo more closely home to the hearts of the

people, and raised the whole moral tone of the Greek nation, was the

belief, gradually developed with the intelligence of the people, that he

was the god who accepted repentance as an atonement for sin, who pardoned

the contrite sinner, and who acted as the special protector of those,

who, like Orestes, had committed a crime, which required long years of

expiation.

Apollo is represented by the poets as being eternally young; his

countenance, glowing with joyous life, is the embodiment of immortal

beauty; his eyes are of a deep [74]blue; his forehead low, but broad and

intellectual; his hair, which falls over his shoulders in long waving

locks, is of a golden, or warm chestnut hue. He is crowned with laurel,

and wears a purple robe; in his hand he bears his silver bow, which is

unbent when he smiles, but ready for use when he menaces evil-doers.

But Apollo, the eternally beautiful youth, the perfection of all that

is graceful and refined, rarely seems to have been happy in his love;

either his advances met with a repulse, or his union with the object of

his affection was attended with fatal consequences.

His first love was Daphne (daughter of Peneus, the river-god), who was

so averse to marriage that she entreated her father to allow her to lead

a life of celibacy, and devote herself to the chase, which she loved to

the exclusion of all other pursuits. But one day, soon after his victory

over the Python, Apollo happened to see Eros bending his bow, and proud

of his own superior strength and skill, he laughed at the efforts of the

little archer, saying that such a weapon was more suited to the one who

had just killed the terrible serpent. Eros angrily replied that his arrow

should pierce the heart of the mocker himself, and flying off to the

summit of Mount Parnassus, he drew from his quiver two darts of different

workmanship—one of gold, which had the effect of inspiring love;

the other of lead, which created aversion. Taking aim at Apollo, he

pierced his breast with the golden shaft, whilst the leaden one he

discharged into the bosom of the beautiful Daphne. The son of Leto

instantly felt the most ardent affection for the nymph, who, on her part,

evinced the greatest dislike towards her divine lover, and, at his

approach, fled from him like a hunted deer. He called upon her in the

most endearing accents to stay, but she still sped on, until at length,

becoming faint with fatigue, and fearing that she was about to succumb,

she called upon the gods to come to her aid. Hardly had she uttered her

prayer before a heavy torpor seized her limbs, and just as Apollo threw

out his arms to embrace her, she became transformed [75]into a laurel-bush. He

sorrowfully crowned his head with its leaves, and declared, that in

memory of his love, it should henceforth remain evergreen, and be held

sacred to him.

He next sought the love of Marpessa, the daughter of Evenus; but

though her father approved his suit, the maiden preferred a youth named

Idas, who contrived to carry her off in a winged chariot which he had

procured from Poseidon. Apollo pursued the fugitives, whom he quickly

overtook, and forcibly seizing the bride, refused to resign her. Zeus

then interfered, and declared that Marpessa herself must decide which of

her lovers should claim her as his wife. After due reflection she

accepted Idas as her husband, judiciously concluding that although the

attractions of the divine Apollo were superior to those of her lover, it

would be wiser to unite herself to a mortal, who, growing old with

herself, would be less likely to forsake her, when advancing years should

rob her of her charms.

Cassandra, daughter of Priam, king of Troy, was another object of the

love of Apollo. She feigned to return his affection, and promised to

marry him, provided he would confer upon her the gift of prophecy; but

having received the boon she desired, the treacherous maiden refused to

comply with the conditions upon which it had been granted. Incensed at

her breach of faith, Apollo, unable to recall the gift he had bestowed,

rendered it useless by causing her predictions to fail in obtaining

credence. Cassandra became famous in history for her prophetic powers,

but her prophecies were never believed. For instance, she warned her

brother Paris that if he brought back a wife from Greece he would cause

the destruction of his father’s house and kingdom; she also warned the

Trojans not to admit the wooden horse within the walls of the city, and

foretold to Agamemnon all the disasters which afterwards befell him.

Apollo afterwards married Coronis, a nymph of Larissa, and thought

himself happy in the possession of her faithful love; but once more he

was doomed to [76]disappointment, for one day his favourite

bird, the crow, flew to him with the intelligence that his wife had

transferred her affections to a youth of Haemonia. Apollo, burning with

rage, instantly destroyed her with one of his death-bringing darts. Too

late he repented of his rashness, for she had been tenderly beloved by

him, and he would fain have recalled her to life; but, although he

exerted all his healing powers, his efforts were in vain. He punished the

crow for its garrulity by changing the colour of its plumage from pure

white to intense black, and forbade it to fly any longer among the other

birds.

Coronis left an infant son named Asclepius, who afterwards became god

of medicine. His powers were so extraordinary that he could not only cure

the sick, but could even restore the dead to life. At last Aïdes

complained to Zeus that the number of shades conducted to his dominions

was daily decreasing, and the great ruler of Olympus, fearing that

mankind, thus protected against sickness and death, would be able to defy

the gods themselves, killed Asclepius with one of his thunderbolts. The

loss of his highly gifted son so exasperated Apollo that, being unable to

vent his anger on Zeus, he destroyed the Cyclops, who had forged the

fatal thunderbolts. For this offence, Apollo would have been banished by

Zeus to Tartarus, but at the earnest intercession of Leto he partially

relented, and contented himself with depriving him of all power and

dignity, and imposing on him a temporary servitude in the house of

Admetus, king of Thessaly. Apollo faithfully served his royal master for

nine years in the humble capacity of a shepherd, and was treated by him

with every kindness and consideration. During the period of his service

the king sought the hand of Alcestis, the beautiful daughter of Pelias,

son of Poseidon; but her father declared that he would only resign her to

the suitor who should succeed in yoking a lion and a wild boar to his

chariot. By the aid of his divine herdsman, Admetus accomplished this

difficult task, and gained his bride. Nor was this the only favour which

the king received from the exiled god, for Apollo obtained from [77]the Fates the

gift of immortality for his benefactor, on condition that when his last

hour approached, some member of his own family should be willing to die

in his stead. When the fatal hour arrived, and Admetus felt that he was

at the point of death, he implored his aged parents to yield to him their

few remaining days. But “life is sweet” even to old age, and they both

refused to make the sacrifice demanded of them. Alcestis, however, who

had secretly devoted herself to death for her husband, was seized with a

mortal sickness, which kept pace with his rapid recovery. The devoted

wife breathed her last in the arms of Admetus, and he had just consigned

her to the tomb, when Heracles chanced to come to the palace. Admetus

held the rites of hospitality so sacred, that he at first kept silence

with regard to his great bereavement; but as soon as his friend heard

what had occurred, he bravely descended into the tomb, and when death

came to claim his prey, he exerted his marvellous strength, and held him

in his arms, until he promised to restore the beautiful and heroic queen

to the bosom of her family.

Whilst pursuing the peaceful life of a shepherd, Apollo formed a

strong friendship with two youths named Hyacinthus and Cyparissus, but

the great favour shown to them by the god did not suffice to shield them

from misfortune. The former was one day throwing the discus with Apollo,

when, running too eagerly to take up the one thrown by the god, he was

struck on the head with it and killed on the spot. Apollo was overcome

with grief at the sad end of his young favourite, but being unable to

restore him to life, he changed him into the flower called after him the

Hyacinth. Cyparissus had the misfortune to kill by accident one of

Apollo’s favourite stags, which so preyed on his mind that he gradually

pined away, and died of a broken heart. He was transformed by the god

into a cypress-tree, which owes its name to this story.

After these sad occurrences Apollo quitted Thessaly and repaired to

Phrygia, in Asia Minor, where he met Poseidon, who, like himself, was in

exile, and condemned [78]to a temporary servitude on earth. The two

gods now entered the service of Laomedon, king of Troy, Apollo

undertaking to tend his flocks, and Poseidon to build the walls of the

city. But Apollo also contributed his assistance in the erection of those

wonderful walls, and, by the aid of his marvellous musical powers, the

labours of his fellow-worker, Poseidon, were rendered so light and easy

that his otherwise arduous task advanced with astonishing celerity; for,

as the master-hand of the god of music grasped the chords of his lyre,^[30] the huge blocks of stone

moved of their own accord, adjusting themselves with the utmost nicety

into the places designed for them.

But though Apollo was so renowned in the art of music, there were two

individuals who had the effrontery to consider themselves equal to him in

this respect, and, accordingly, each challenged him to compete with them

in a musical contest. These were Marsyas and Pan. Marsyas was a satyr,

who, having picked up the flute which Athene had thrown away in disgust,

discovered, to his great delight and astonishment, that, in consequence

of its having touched the lips of a goddess, it played of itself in the

most charming manner. Marsyas, who was a great lover of music, and much

beloved on this account by all the elf-like denizens of the woods and

glens, was so intoxicated with joy at this discovery, that he foolishly

challenged Apollo to compete with him in a musical contest. The challenge

being accepted, the Muses were chosen umpires, and it was decided that

the unsuccessful candidate should suffer the punishment of being flayed

alive. For a long time the merits of both claimants remained so equally

balanced, that it was impossible to award the palm of victory to either,

seeing which, Apollo, resolved to conquer, added the sweet tones of his

melodious voice to the strains of his lyre, [79]and this at once turned

the scale in his favour. The unhappy Marsyas being defeated, had to

undergo the terrible penalty, and his untimely fate was universally

lamented; indeed the Satyrs and Dryads, his companions, wept so

incessantly at his fate, that their tears, uniting together, formed a

river in Phrygia which is still known by the name of Marsyas.

The result of the contest with Pan was by no means of so serious a

character. The god of shepherds having affirmed that he could play more

skilfully on his flute of seven reeds (the syrinx or Pan’s pipe), than

Apollo on his world-renowned lyre, a contest ensued, in which Apollo was

pronounced the victor by all the judges appointed to decide between the

rival candidates. Midas, king of Phrygia, alone demurred at this

decision, having the bad taste to prefer the uncouth tones of the Pan’s

pipe to the refined melodies of Apollo’s lyre. Incensed at the obstinacy

and stupidity of the Phrygian king, Apollo punished him by giving him the

ears of an ass. Midas, horrified at being thus disfigured, determined to

hide his disgrace from his subjects by means of a cap; his barber,

however, could not be kept in ignorance of the fact, and was therefore

bribed with rich gifts never to reveal it. Finding, however, that he

could not keep the secret any longer, he dug a hole in the ground into

which he whispered it; then closing up the aperture he returned home,

feeling greatly relieved at having thus eased his mind of its burden. But

after all, this very humiliating secret was revealed to the world, for

some reeds which sprung up from the spot murmured incessantly, as they

waved to and fro in the wind: “King Midas has the ears of an ass.”

In the sad and beautiful story of Niobe, daughter of Tantalus, and

wife of Amphion, king of Thebes, we have another instance of the severe

punishments meted out by Apollo to those who in any way incurred his

displeasure. Niobe was the proud mother of seven sons and seven

daughters, and exulting in the number of her children, she, upon one

occasion, ridiculed the worship of Leto, [80]because she had but one

son and daughter, and desired the Thebans, for the future, to give to her

the honours and sacrifices which they had hitherto offered to the mother

of Apollo and Artemis. The sacrilegious words had scarcely passed her

lips before Apollo called upon his sister Artemis to assist him in

avenging the insult offered to their mother, and soon their invisible

arrows sped through the air. Apollo slew all the sons, and Artemis had

already slain all the daughters save one, the youngest and best beloved,

whom Niobe clasped in her arms, when the agonized mother implored the

enraged deities to leave her, at least, one out of all her beautiful

children; but, even as she prayed, the deadly arrow reached the heart of

this child also. Meanwhile the unhappy father, unable to bear the loss of

his children, had destroyed himself, and his dead body lay beside the

lifeless corpse of his favourite son. Widowed and childless, the

heart-broken mother sat among her dead, and the gods, in pity for her

unutterable woe, turned her into a stone, which they transferred to

Siphylus, her native Phrygian mountain, where it still continues to shed

tears.

The punishment of Niobe forms the subject of a magnificent marble

group, which was found at Rome in the year 1553, and is now in the

gallery of Uffizi, at Florence.

The renowned singer Orpheus was the son of Apollo and Calliope, the

muse of epic poetry, and, as might be expected with parents so highly

gifted, was endowed with most distinguished intellectual qualifications.

He was a poet, a teacher of the religious doctrines known as the Orphic

mysteries, and a great musician, having inherited from his father an

extraordinary genius for music. [81]When he sang to the sweet tones of his lyre,

he charmed all nature, and summoned round him the wild beasts of the

forests, who, under the influence of his music, became tame and gentle as

lambs. The madly rushing torrents stopped their rapid course, and the

very mountains and trees moved from their places at the sound of his

entrancing melodies.

Orpheus became united to a lovely nymph named Eurydice, the daughter

of the sea-god Nereus, whom he fondly loved. She was no less attached to

him, and their married life was full of joy and happiness. But it was

only short-lived; for Aristæus,^[31] the half-brother of Orpheus, having

fallen in love with the beautiful Eurydice, forcibly endeavoured to take

her from her husband, and as she fled across some fields to elude his

pursuit, she was bitten in the foot by a venomous snake, which lay

concealed in the long grass. Eurydice died of the wound, and her

sorrowing husband filled the groves and valleys with his piteous and

unceasing lamentations.

His longing to behold her once more became at last so unconquerable,

that he determined to brave the horrors of the lower world, in order to

entreat Aïdes to restore to him his beloved wife. Armed only with his

golden lyre, the gift of Apollo, he descended into the gloomy depths of

Hades, where his heavenly music arrested for a while the torments of the

unhappy sufferers. The stone of Sisyphus remained motionless; Tantalus

forgot his perpetual thirst; the wheel of Ixion ceased to revolve; and

even the Furies shed tears, and withheld for a time their persecutions.

Undismayed at the scenes of horror and suffering which met his view on

every side, he pursued his way until he arrived at the palace of Aïdes.

Presenting himself before the throne on which sat the stony-hearted king

and his consort Persephone, Orpheus recounted his woes to the sound of

his lyre. Moved to pity by his sweet strains, they listened to his [82]melancholy story, and consented to release

Eurydice on condition that he should not look upon her until they reached

the upper world. Orpheus gladly promised to comply with this injunction,

and, followed by Eurydice, ascended the steep and gloomy path which led

to the realms of life and light. All went well until he was just about to

pass the extreme limits of Hades, when, forgetting for the moment the

hard condition, he turned to convince himself that his beloved wife was

really behind him. The glance was fatal, and destroyed all his hopes of

happiness; for, as he yearningly stretched out his arms to embrace her,

she was caught back, and vanished from his sight for ever. The grief of

Orpheus at this second loss was even more intense than before, and he now

avoided all human society. In vain did the nymphs, his once chosen

companions, endeavour to win him back to his accustomed haunts; their

power to charm was gone, and music was now his sole consolation. He

wandered forth alone, choosing the wildest and most secluded paths, and

the hills and vales resounded with his pathetic melodies. At last he

happened to cross the path of some Thracian women, who were performing

the wild rites of Dionysus (Bacchus), and in their mad fury at his

refusing to join them, they furiously attacked him, and tore him in

pieces. In pity for his unhappy fate, the Muses collected his remains,

which they buried at the foot of Mount Olympus, and the nightingale

warbled a funeral dirge over his grave. His head was thrown into the

river Hebrus, and as it floated down the stream, the lips still continued

to murmur the beloved name of Eurydice.

The chief seat of the worship of Apollo was at Delphi, and here was

the most magnificent of all his temples, the foundation of which reaches

far beyond all historical knowledge, and which contained immense riches,

the offerings of kings and private persons, who had received favourable

replies from the oracle. The Greeks believed Delphi to be the central

point of the earth, because two eagles sent forth by Zeus, one from the

east, the other [83]from the west, were said to have arrived

there at the same moment.

The Pythian games, celebrated in honour of the victory of Apollo over

the Python, took place at Delphi every four years. At the first

celebration of these games, gods, goddesses, and heroes contended for the

prizes, which were at first of gold or silver, but consisted, in later

times, of simple laurel wreaths.

On account of its being the place of his birth, the whole island of

Delos was consecrated to Apollo, where he was worshipped with great

solemnity; the greatest care was taken to preserve the sanctity of the

spot, for which reason no one was suffered to be buried there. At the

foot of Mount Cynthus was a splendid temple of Apollo which possessed an

oracle, and was enriched with magnificent offerings from all parts of

Greece. Even foreign nations held this island sacred, for when the

Persians passed it on their way to attack Greece, they not only sailed

by, leaving it uninjured, but sent rich presents to the temple. Games,

called Delia, instituted by Theseus, were celebrated at Delos every four

years.

A festival termed the Gymnopedæa was held at Sparta in honour of

Apollo, in which boys sang the praises of the gods, and of the three

hundred Lacedæmonians who fell at the battle of Thermopylæ.

Wolves and hawks were sacrificed to Apollo, and the birds sacred to

him were the hawk, raven, and swan.

ROMAN APOLLO.

The worship of Apollo never occupied the all-important position in

Rome which it held in Greece, nor was it introduced till a comparatively

late period. There was no sanctuary erected to this divinity until B.C. 430, when the Romans, in order to avert a

plague, built a temple in his honour; but we do not find the worship of

Apollo becoming in any way prominent until the time of Augustus, who,

having called upon this god for aid before the famous battle of Actium,

ascribed the victory which he [84]gained, to his influence, and accordingly

erected a temple there, which he enriched with a portion of the

spoil.

Augustus afterwards built another temple in honour of Apollo, on the

Palatine Hill, in which at the foot of his statue, were deposited two

gilt chests, containing the Sibylline oracles. These oracles were

collected to replace the Sibylline books originally preserved in the

temple of Jupiter, which were destroyed when that edifice was burned.

The Sibyls were maidens who had received the gift of prophecy, and the

privilege of living to an incredible age. One of these Sibyls (known as

the Cumæan) appeared to Tarquinius Superbus, the last king of Rome,

offering for sale nine books, which she informed him had been written by

herself. Not knowing who she was, Tarquin refused to buy them, upon which

she burned three, and returned with six, demanding the same price as

before. Being again driven away as an impostor, she again retired and

burned three more, returning with the remaining three, for which she

still asked the same price as at first. Tarquin, amazed at her

inconsistency, now consulted the Augurs, who blamed him for not having

bought the nine books when they were first offered to him, and desired

him to secure the remaining three, at whatever price they were to be had.

He, accordingly, purchased the volumes, which were found to contain

predictions of great importance to the Romans. After the disposal of the

books, the Sibyl vanished, and was seen no more.

The most beautiful and renowned of all the statues of Apollo now in

existence, is that known as the Apollo Belvedere, which was found in 1503

among the ruins of [85]ancient Antium. It was purchased by Pope

Julius II., who removed it to the Belvedere of the Vatican, from whence

it takes its name, and where it has been, for more than three hundred

years, the admiration of the world. When Rome was taken, and plundered by

the French, this celebrated statue was transported to Paris, and placed

in the museum there, but in 1815 it was restored to its former place in

the Vatican. The attitude of the figure, which is more than seven feet

high, is inimitable in its freedom, grace, and majesty. The forehead is

noble and intellectual, and the whole countenance so exquisite in its

beauty, that one pauses spell-bound to gaze on so perfect a conception.

The god has a very youthful appearance, as is usual in all his

representations, and with the exception of a short mantle which falls

from his shoulders, is unclothed. He stands against the trunk of a tree,

up which a serpent is creeping, and his left arm is outstretched, as

though about to punish.

HECATE.

Hecate would appear to have been originally a moon-goddess worshipped

by the Thracians. She became confounded, and eventually identified with

Selene and Persephone, and is one of those divinities of whom the

ancients had various conflicting accounts.

Hecate was the daughter of Perses and “gold-wreathed” Astræa (the

starry night^[32]), and her

sway extended over earth, heaven, and hell, for which reason she is

represented in works of art as a triple divinity, having three female

bodies, all young and beautiful, and united together.

In later times, when this divinity becomes identified with Persephone,

she is supposed to inhabit the lower world as a malignant deity, and

henceforward it is the gloomy, awe-inspiring side of her character which

alone [86]develops itself. She now presides over all

practices connected with witchcraft and enchantments, haunts sepulchres,

and the point where two roads cross, and lonely spots where murders have

been committed. She was supposed to be connected with the appearance of

ghosts and spectres, to possess unlimited influence over the powers of

the lower world, and to be able to lay to rest unearthly apparitions by

her magic spells and incantations.

Hecate appears as a gigantic woman, bearing a torch and a sword. Her

feet and hair are formed of snakes, and her passage is accompanied by

voices of thunder, weird shrieks and yells, and the deep baying and

howling of dogs.

Her favour was propitiated by offerings and sacrifices, principally

consisting of black lambs. Her festivals were celebrated at night, by

torchlight, when these animals were offered to her, accompanied by many

peculiar ceremonies. These ceremonies were carried out with the minutest

attention to details, as it was believed that the omission of the

slightest particular would afford to her ministers, the evil spirits of

the lower world, who hovered round the worshippers, an opportunity for

entering among them, and exerting their baneful influence. At the end of

every month food was placed wherever two roads met, in readiness for her

and other malignant divinities.

In studying the peculiar characteristics which Hecate assumes when she

usurps the place of Persephone, the rightful mistress of the lower world,

we are reminded of the various superstitions with regard to spectres,

witchcraft, &c., which have, even down to our own times, exerted so

powerful an influence over the minds of the ignorant, and which would

appear to owe their origin to a remote pagan source.

SELENE (Luna).

Just as Helios personified the sun, so his sister Selene represented

the moon, and was supposed to drive her [87]chariot across the sky

whilst her brother was reposing after the toils of the day.

When the shades of evening began to enfold the earth, the two

milk-white steeds of Selene rose out of the mysterious depths of Oceanus.

Seated in a silvery chariot, and accompanied by her daughter Herse, the

goddess of the dew, appeared the mild and gentle queen of the night, with

a crescent on her fair brow, a gauzy veil flowing behind, and a lighted

torch in her hand.

Selene greatly admired a beautiful young shepherd named Endymion, to

whom Zeus had accorded the privilege of eternal youth, combined with the

faculty of sleeping whenever he desired, and as long as he wished. Seeing

this lovely youth fast asleep on Mount Latmus, Selene was so struck with

his beauty, that she came down every night from heaven to watch over and

protect him.

ARTEMIS (Diana).

Artemis was worshipped by the Greeks under various appellations, to

each of which belonged special characteristics. Thus she is known as the

Arcadian, Ephesian and Brauronian Artemis, and also as Selene-Artemis,

and in order fully to comprehend the worship of this divinity, we must

consider her under each aspect.

ARCADIAN ARTEMIS.

The Arcadian Artemis (the real Artemis of the Greeks) was the daughter

of Zeus and Leto, and twin-sister of Apollo. She was the goddess of

Hunting and Chastity, and having obtained from her father permission to

lead a life of celibacy, she ever remained a maiden-divinity. Artemis is

the feminine counterpart of her brother, the glorious god of Light, and,

like him, though she deals out destruction and sudden death to men and

animals, she is also able to alleviate suffering and cure diseases. Like

Apollo also, she is skilled in the use of the bow, but in a far more

eminent degree, for in the character of Artemis, who devoted herself to

the chase with passionate [88]ardour, this becomes an all-distinguishing

feature. Armed with her bow and quiver, and attended by her train of

huntresses, who were nymphs of the woods and springs, she roamed over the

mountains in pursuit of her favourite exercise, destroying in her course

the wild animals of the forest. When the chase was ended, Artemis and her

maidens loved to assemble in a shady grove, or on the banks of a

favourite stream, where they joined in the merry song, or graceful dance,

and made the hills resound with their joyous shouts.

As the type of purity and chastity, Artemis was especially venerated

by young maidens, who, before marrying, sacrificed their hair to her. She

was also the patroness of those vowed to celibacy, and punished severely

any infringement of their obligation.

The huntress-goddess is represented as being a head taller than her

attendant nymphs, and always appears as a youthful and slender maiden.

Her features are beautiful, but wanting in gentleness of expression; her

hair is gathered negligently into a knot at the back of her well-shaped

head; and her figure, though somewhat masculine, is most graceful in its

attitude and proportions. The short robe she wears, leaves her limbs free

for the exercise of the chase, her devotion to which is indicated by the

quiver which is slung over her shoulder, and the bow which she bears in

her hand.

There are many famous statues of this divinity; but the most

celebrated is that known as the Diana of Versailles, now in the Louvre,

which forms a not unworthy companion to the Apollo-Belvedere of the

Vatican. In this statue, the goddess appears in the act of rescuing a

hunted deer from its pursuers, on whom she is turning with angry mien.

One hand is laid protectingly on the head of the stag, whilst with the

other she draws an arrow from the quiver which hangs over her

shoulder.

Her attributes are the bow, quiver, and spear. The animals sacred to

her are the hind, dog, bear, and wild boar.

Artemis promptly resented any disregard or neglect of [89]her worship; a

remarkable instance of this is shown in the story of the Calydonian

boar-hunt, which is as follows:—

Oeneus, king of Calydon in Ætolia, had incurred the displeasure of

Artemis by neglecting to include her in a general sacrifice to the gods

which he had offered up, out of gratitude for a bountiful harvest. The

goddess, enraged at this neglect, sent a wild boar of extraordinary size

and prodigious strength, which destroyed the sprouting grain, laid waste

the fields, and threatened the inhabitants with famine and death. At this

juncture, Meleager, the brave son of Oeneus, returned from the Argonautic

expedition, and finding his country ravaged by this dreadful scourge,

entreated the assistance of all the celebrated heroes of the age to join

him in hunting the ferocious monster. Among the most famous of those who

responded to his call were Jason, Castor and Pollux, Idas and Lynceus,

Peleus, Telamon, Admetus, Perithous, and Theseus. The brothers of Althea,

wife of Oeneus, joined the hunters, and Meleager also enlisted into his

service the fleet-footed huntress Atalanta.

The father of this maiden was Schoeneus, an Arcadian, who,

disappointed at the birth of a daughter when he had particularly desired

a son, had exposed her on the Parthenian Hill, where he left her to

perish. Here she was nursed by a she-bear, and at last found by some

hunters, who reared her, and gave her the name of Atalanta. As the maiden

grew up, she became an ardent [90]lover of the chase, and was alike

distinguished for her beauty and courage. Though often wooed, she led a

life of strict celibacy, an oracle having predicted that inevitable

misfortune awaited her, should she give herself in marriage to any of her

numerous suitors.

Many of the heroes objected to hunt in company with a maiden; but

Meleager, who loved Atalanta, overcame their opposition, and the valiant

band set out on their expedition. Atalanta was the first to wound the

boar with her spear, but not before two of the heroes had met their death

from his fierce tusks. After a long and desperate encounter, Meleager

succeeded in killing the monster, and presented the head and hide to

Atalanta, as trophies of the victory. The uncles of Meleager, however,

forcibly took the hide from the maiden, claiming their right to the spoil

as next of kin, if Meleager resigned it. Artemis, whose anger was still

unappeased, caused a violent quarrel to arise between uncles and nephew,

and, in the struggle which ensued, Meleager killed his mother’s brothers,

and then restored the hide to Atalanta. When Althea beheld the dead

bodies of the slain heroes, her grief and anger knew no bounds. She swore

to revenge the death of her brothers on her own son, and unfortunately

for him, the instrument of vengeance lay ready to her hand.

At the birth of Meleager, the Moirae, or Fates, entered the house of

Oeneus, and pointing to a piece of wood then burning on the hearth,

declared that as soon as it was consumed the babe would surely die. On

hearing this, Althea seized the brand, laid it up carefully in a chest,

and henceforth preserved it as her most precious possession. But now,

love for her son giving place to the resentment she felt against the

murderer of her brothers, she threw the fatal brand into the devouring

flames. As it consumed, the vigour of Meleager wasted away, and when it

was reduced to ashes, he expired. Repenting too late the terrible effects

of her rash deed, Althea, in remorse and despair, took away her own

life.

The news of the courage and intrepidity displayed by [91]Atalanta in the

famous boar-hunt, being carried to the ears of her father, caused him to

acknowledge his long-lost child. Urged by him to choose one of her

numerous suitors, she consented to do so, but made it a condition that he

alone, who could outstrip her in the race, should become her husband,

whilst those she defeated should be put to death by her, with the lance

which she bore in her hand. Thus many suitors had perished, for the

maiden was unequalled for swiftness of foot, but at last a beautiful

youth, named Hippomenes, who had vainly endeavoured to win her love by

his assiduous attentions in the chase, ventured to enter the fatal lists.

Knowing that only by stratagem could he hope to be successful, he

obtained, by the help of Aphrodite, three golden apples from the garden

of the Hesperides, which he threw down at intervals during his course.

Atalanta, secure of victory, stooped to pick up the tempting fruit, and,

in the meantime, Hippomenes arrived at the goal. He became the husband of

the lovely Atalanta, but forgot, in his newly found happiness, the

gratitude which he owed to Aphrodite, and the goddess withdrew her favour

from the pair. Not long after, the prediction which foretold misfortune

to Atalanta, in the event of her marriage, was verified, for she and her

husband, having strayed unsanctioned into a sacred grove of Zeus, were

both transformed into lions.

The trophies of the ever-memorable boar-hunt had been carried by

Atalanta into Arcadia, and, for many centuries, the identical hide and

enormous tusks of the Calydonian boar hung in the temple of Athene at

Tegea. The tusks were afterwards conveyed to Rome, and shown there among

other curiosities.

A forcible instance of the manner in which Artemis resented any

intrusion on her retirement, is seen in the fate which befell the famous

hunter Actaeon, who happening one day to see Artemis and her attendants

bathing, imprudently ventured to approach the spot. The goddess, incensed

at his audacity, sprinkled him with water, and transformed him into a

stag, whereupon he was torn in pieces and devoured by his own dogs. [92]

EPHESIAN ARTEMIS.

The Ephesian Artemis, known to us as “Diana of the Ephesians,” was a

very ancient Asiatic divinity of Persian origin called Metra,^[33] whose worship the Greek

colonists found already established, when they first settled in Asia

Minor, and whom they identified with their own Greek Artemis, though she

really possessed but one single attribute in common with their home

deity.

Metra was a twofold divinity, and represented, in one phase of her

character, all-pervading love; in the other she was the light of heaven;

and as Artemis, in her character as Selene, was the only Greek female

divinity who represented celestial light, the Greek settlers, according

to their custom of fusing foreign deities into their own, seized at once

upon this point of resemblance, and decided that Metra should henceforth

be regarded as identical with Artemis.

In her character as the love which pervades all nature, and penetrates

everywhere, they believed her also to be present in the mysterious Realm

of Shades, where she exercised her benign sway, replacing to a certain

extent that ancient divinity Hecate, and partly usurping also the place

of Persephone, as mistress of the lower world. Thus they believed that it

was she who permitted the spirits of the departed to revisit the earth,

in order to communicate with those they loved, and to give them timely

warning of coming evil. In fact, this great, mighty, and omnipresent

power of love, as embodied in the Ephesian Artemis, was believed by the

great thinkers of old, to be the ruling spirit of the universe, and it

was to her influence, that all the mysterious and beneficent workings of

nature were ascribed.

There was a magnificent temple erected to this divinity at Ephesus (a

city of Asia Minor), which was ranked among the seven wonders of the

world, and was unequalled in beauty and grandeur. The interior of this

[93]edifice was adorned with statues and

paintings, and contained one hundred and twenty-seven columns, sixty feet

in height, each column having been placed there by a different king. The

wealth deposited in this temple was enormous, and the goddess was here

worshipped with particular awe and solemnity. In the interior of the

edifice stood a statue of her, formed of ebony, with lions on her arms

and turrets on her head, whilst a number of breasts indicated the

fruitfulness of the earth and of nature. Ctesiphon was the principal

architect of this world-renowned structure, which, however, was not

entirely completed till two hundred and twenty years after the

foundation-stone was laid. But the labour of centuries was destroyed in a

single night; for a man called Herostratus, seized with the insane desire

of making his name famous to all succeeding generations, set fire to it

and completely destroyed it.^[34] So great was the indignation and sorrow

of the Ephesians at this calamity, that they enacted a law, forbidding

the incendiary’s name to be mentioned, thereby however, defeating their

own object, for thus the name of Herostratus has been handed down to

posterity, and will live as long as the memory of the famous temple of

Ephesus.

BRAURONIAN ARTEMIS.

In ancient times, the country which we now call the Crimea, was known

by the name of the Taurica Chersonnesus. It was colonized by Greek

settlers, who, finding that the Scythian inhabitants had a native

divinity somewhat resembling their own Artemis, identified her with the

huntress-goddess of the mother-country. The worship of this Taurian

Artemis was attended with the most barbarous practices, for, in

accordance with a law which she had enacted, all strangers, whether male

or female, landing, or shipwrecked on her shores, were sacrificed upon

her altars. It is supposed that this decree was [94]issued by the Taurian

goddess of Chastity, to protect the purity of her followers, by keeping

them apart from foreign influences.

The interesting story of Iphigenia, a priestess in the temple of

Artemis at Tauris, forms the subject of one of Schiller’s most beautiful

plays. The circumstances occurred at the commencement of the Trojan war,

and are as follows:—The fleet, collected by the Greeks for the

siege of Troy, had assembled at Aulis, in Bœotia, and was about to

set sail, when Agamemnon, the commander-in-chief, had the misfortune to

kill accidentally a stag which was grazing in a grove, sacred to Artemis.

The offended goddess sent continuous calms that delayed the departure of

the fleet, and Calchas, the soothsayer, who had accompanied the

expedition, declared that nothing less than the sacrifice of Agamemnon’s

favorite daughter, Iphigenia, would appease the wrath of the goddess. At

these words, the heroic heart of the brave leader sank within him, and he

declared that rather than consent to so fearful an alternative, he would

give up his share in the expedition and return to Argos. In this dilemma

Odysseus and other great generals called a council to discuss the matter,

and, after much deliberation, it was decided that private feeling must

yield to the welfare of the state. For a long time the unhappy Agamemnon

turned a deaf ear to their arguments, but at last they succeeded in

persuading him that it was his duty to make the sacrifice. He,

accordingly, despatched a messenger to his wife, Clytemnæstra, begging

her to send Iphigenia to him, alleging as a pretext that the great hero

Achilles desired to make her his wife. Rejoicing at the brilliant destiny

which awaited her beautiful daughter, the fond mother at once obeyed the

command, and sent her to Aulis. When the maiden arrived at her

destination, and discovered, to her horror, the dreadful fate which

awaited her, she threw herself in an agony of grief at her father’s feet,

and with sobs and tears entreated him to have mercy on her, and to spare

her young life. But alas! her doom was sealed, and her now repentant and

[95]heart-broken father was powerless to avert

it. The unfortunate victim was bound to the altar, and already the fatal

knife was raised to deal the death-blow, when suddenly Iphigenia

disappeared from view, and in her place on the altar, lay a beautiful

deer ready to be sacrificed. It was Artemis herself, who, pitying the

youth and beauty of her victim, caused her to be conveyed in a cloud to

Taurica, where she became one of her priestesses, and intrusted with the

charge of her temple; a dignity, however, which necessitated the offering

of those human sacrifices presented to Artemis.

Many years passed away, during which time the long and wearisome siege

of Troy had come to an end, and the brave Agamemnon had returned home to

meet death at the hands of his wife and Aegisthus. But his daughter,

Iphigenia, was still an exile from her native country, and continued to

perform the terrible duties which her office involved. She had long given

up all hopes of ever being restored to her friends, when one day two

Greek strangers landed on Taurica’s inhospitable shores. These were

Orestes and Pylades, whose romantic attachment to each other has made

their names synonymous for devoted self-sacrificing friendship. Orestes

was Iphigenia’s brother, and Pylades her cousin, and their object in

undertaking an expedition fraught with so much peril, was to obtain the

statue of the Taurian Artemis. Orestes, having incurred the anger of the

Furies for avenging the murder of his father Agamemnon, was pursued by

them wherever he went, until at last he was informed by the oracle of

Delphi that, in order to pacify them, he must convey the image of the

Taurian Artemis from Tauris to Attica. This he at once resolved to do,

and accompanied by his faithful friend Pylades, who insisted on sharing

the dangers of the undertaking, he set out for Taurica. But the

unfortunate youths had hardly stepped on shore before they were seized by

the natives, who, as usual, conveyed them for sacrifice to the temple of

Artemis. Iphigenia, discovering that they were Greeks, though unaware of

their near relationship to herself, thought the [96]opportunity a favourable

one for sending tidings of her existence to her native country, and,

accordingly, requested one of the strangers to be the bearer of a letter

from her to her family. A magnanimous dispute now arose between the

friends, and each besought the other to accept the precious privilege of

life and freedom. Pylades, at length overcome by the urgent entreaties of

Orestes, agreed to be the bearer of the missive, but on looking more

closely at the superscription, he observed, to his intense surprise, that

it was addressed to Orestes. Hereupon an explanation followed; the

brother and sister recognized each other, amid joyful tears and loving

embraces, and assisted by her friends and kinsmen, Iphigenia escaped with

them from a country where she had spent so many unhappy days, and

witnessed so many scenes of horror and anguish.

The fugitives, having contrived to obtain the image of the Taurian

Artemis, carried it with them to Brauron in Attica. This divinity was

henceforth known as the Brauronian Artemis, and the rites which had

rendered her worship so infamous in Taurica were now introduced into

Greece, and human victims bled freely under the sacrificial knife, both

in Athens and Sparta. The revolting practice of offering human sacrifices

to her, was continued until the time of Lycurgus, the great Spartan

lawgiver, who put an end to it by substituting in its place one, which

was hardly less barbarous, namely, the scourging of youths, who were

whipped on the altars of the Brauronian Artemis in the most cruel manner;

sometimes indeed they expired under the lash, in which case their

mothers, far from lamenting their fate, are said to have rejoiced,

considering this an honourable death for their sons.

SELENE-ARTEMIS.

Hitherto we have seen Artemis only in the various phases of her

terrestrial character; but just as her brother Apollo drew into himself

by degrees the attributes of that more ancient divinity Helios, the

sun-god, so, in like manner, she came to be identified in later times

[97]with Selene, the moon-goddess, in which

character she is always represented as wearing on her forehead a

glittering crescent, whilst a flowing veil, bespangled with stars,

reaches to her feet, and a long robe completely envelops her.

DIANA.

The Diana of the Romans was identified with the Greek Artemis, with

whom she shares that peculiar tripartite character, which so strongly

marks the individuality of the Greek goddess. In heaven she was Luna (the

moon), on earth Diana (the huntress-goddess), and in the lower world

Proserpine; but, unlike the Ephesian Artemis, Diana, in her character as

Proserpine, carries with her into the lower world no element of love or

sympathy; she is, on the contrary, characterized by practices altogether

hostile to man, such as the exercise of witchcraft, evil charms, and

other antagonistic influences, and is, in fact, the Greek Hecate, in her

later development.

The statues of Diana were generally erected at a point where three

roads met, for which reason she is called Trivia (from tri, three,

and via, way).

A temple was dedicated to her on the Aventine hill by Servius Tullius,

who is said to have first introduced the worship of this divinity into

Rome.

The Nemoralia, or Grove Festivals, were celebrated in her honour on

the 13th of August, on the Lacus Nemorensis, or forest-buried lake, near

Aricia. The priest who officiated in her temple on this spot, was always

a fugitive slave, who had gained his office by murdering his predecessor,

and hence was constantly armed, in order that he might thus be prepared

to encounter a new aspirant.

HEPHÆSTUS (Vulcan).

Hephæstus, the son of Zeus and Hera, was the god of fire in its

beneficial aspect, and the presiding deity over all workmanship

accomplished by means of this useful element. He was universally

honoured, not only as the [98]god of all mechanical arts, but also as a

house and hearth divinity, who exercised a beneficial influence on

civilized society in general. Unlike the other Greek divinities, he was

ugly and deformed, being awkward in his movements, and limping in his

gait. This latter defect originated, as we have already seen, in the

wrath of his father Zeus, who hurled him down from heaven^[35] in consequence of his taking the part

of Hera, in one of the domestic disagreements, which so frequently arose

between this royal pair. Hephæstus was a whole day falling from Olympus

to the earth, where he at length alighted on the island of Lemnos. The

inhabitants of the country, seeing him descending through the air,

received him in their arms; but in spite of their care, his leg was

broken by the fall, and he remained ever afterwards lame in one foot.

Grateful for the kindness of the Lemnians, he henceforth took up his

abode in their island, and there built for himself a superb palace, and

forges for the pursuit of his avocation. He instructed the people how to

work in metals, and also taught them other valuable and useful arts.

It is said that the first work of Hephæstus was a most ingenious

throne of gold, with secret springs, which he presented to Hera. It was

arranged in such a manner that, once seated, she found herself unable to

move, and though all the gods endeavoured to extricate her, their efforts

were unavailing. Hephæstus thus revenged himself on his mother for the

cruelty she had always displayed towards him, on account of his want of

comeliness and grace. Dionysus, the wine god, contrived, however, to

intoxicate Hephæstus, and then induced him to return to Olympus, where,

after having released the [99]queen of heaven from her very undignified

position, he became reconciled to his parents.

He now built for himself a glorious palace on Olympus, of shining

gold, and made for the other deities those magnificent edifices which

they inhabited. He was assisted in his various and exquisitely skilful

works of art, by two female statues of pure gold, formed by his own hand,

which possessed the power of motion, and always accompanied him wherever

he went. With the assistance of the Cyclops, he forged for Zeus his

wonderful thunderbolts, thus investing his mighty father with a new power

of terrible import. Zeus testified his appreciation of this precious

gift, by bestowing upon Hephæstus the beautiful Aphrodite in marriage,^[36] but this was a

questionable boon; for the lovely Aphrodite, who was the personification

of all grace and beauty, felt no affection for her ungainly and

unattractive spouse, and amused herself by ridiculing his awkward

movements and unsightly person. On one occasion especially, when

Hephæstus good-naturedly took upon himself the office of cup-bearer to

the gods, his hobbling gait and extreme awkwardness created the greatest

mirth amongst the celestials, in which his disloyal partner was the first

to join, with unconcealed merriment.

Aphrodite greatly preferred Ares to her husband, and this preference

naturally gave rise to much jealousy on the part of Hephæstus, and caused

them great unhappiness.

Hephæstus appears to have been an indispensable member of the Olympic

Assembly, where he plays the part of smith, armourer, chariot-builder,

&c. As already mentioned, he constructed the palaces where the gods

resided, fashioned the golden shoes with which they trod the air or

water, built for them their wonderful chariots, and shod with brass the

horses of celestial breed, which conveyed these glittering equipages over

land and sea. He also made the tripods which moved of themselves in and

out of the celestial halls, formed for Zeus the [100]far-famed ægis, and

erected the magnificent palace of the sun. He also created the

brazen-footed bulls of Aetes, which breathed flames from their nostrils,

sent forth clouds of smoke, and filled the air with their roaring.

Among his most renowned works of art for the use of mortals were: the

armour of Achilles and Æneas, the beautiful necklace of Harmonia, and the

crown of Ariadne; but his masterpiece was Pandora, of whom a detailed

account has already been given.

There was a temple on Mount Etna erected in his honour, which none but

the pure and virtuous were permitted to enter. The entrance to this

temple was guarded by dogs, which possessed the extraordinary faculty of

being able to discriminate between the righteous and the unrighteous,

fawning upon and caressing the good, whilst they rushed upon all

evil-doers and drove them away.

Hephæstus is usually represented as a powerful, brawny, and very

muscular man of middle height and mature age; his strong uplifted arm is

raised in the act of striking the anvil with a hammer, which he holds in

one hand, whilst with the other he is turning a thunderbolt, which an

eagle beside him is waiting to carry to Zeus. The principal seat of his

worship was the island of Lemnos, where he was regarded with peculiar

veneration.

VULCAN.

The Roman Vulcan was merely an importation from Greece, which never at

any time took firm root in Rome, nor entered largely into the actual life

and sympathies of the nation, his worship being unattended by the

devotional feeling and enthusiasm which characterized the religious rites

of the other deities. He still, however, retained in Rome his [101]Greek

attributes as god of fire, and unrivalled master of the art of working in

metals, and was ranked among the twelve great gods of Olympus, whose

gilded statues were arranged consecutively along the Forum. His Roman

name, Vulcan, would seem to indicate a connection with the first great

metal-working artificer of Biblical history, Tubal-Cain.

POSEIDON (Neptune).

Poseidon was the son of Kronos and Rhea, and the brother of Zeus. He

was god of the sea, more particularly of the Mediterranean, and, like the

element over which he presided, was of a variable disposition, now

violently agitated, and now calm and placid, for which reason he is

sometimes represented by the poets as quiet and composed, and at others

as disturbed and angry.

In the earliest ages of Greek mythology, he merely symbolized the

watery element; but in later times, as navigation and intercourse with

other nations engendered greater traffic by sea, Poseidon gained in

importance, and came to be regarded as a distinct divinity, holding

indisputable dominion over the sea, and over all sea-divinities, who

acknowledged him as their sovereign ruler. He possessed the power of

causing at will, mighty and destructive tempests, in which the billows

rise mountains high, the wind becomes a hurricane, land and sea being

enveloped in thick mists, whilst destruction assails the unfortunate

mariners exposed to their fury. On the other hand, his alone was the

power of stilling the angry [102]waves, of soothing the troubled waters,

and granting safe voyages to mariners. For this reason, Poseidon was

always invoked and propitiated by a libation before a voyage was

undertaken, and sacrifices and thanksgivings were gratefully offered to

him after a safe and prosperous journey by sea.

The symbol of his power was the fisherman’s fork or trident,^[37] by means of which he

produced earthquakes, raised up islands from the bottom of the sea, and

caused wells to spring forth out of the earth.

Poseidon was essentially the presiding deity over fishermen, and was

on that account, more particularly worshipped and revered in countries

bordering on the sea-coast, where fish naturally formed a staple

commodity of trade. He was supposed to vent his displeasure by sending

disastrous inundations, which completely destroyed whole countries, and

were usually accompanied by terrible marine monsters, who swallowed up

and devoured those whom the floods had spared. It is probable that these

sea-monsters are the poetical figures which represent the demons of

hunger and famine, necessarily accompanying a general inundation.

Poseidon is generally represented as resembling his brother Zeus in

features, height, and general aspect; but we miss in the countenance of

the sea-god the kindness and benignity which so pleasingly distinguish

his mighty brother. The eyes are bright and piercing, and the contour of

the face somewhat sharper in its outline than that of Zeus, thus

corresponding, as it were, with his more angry and violent nature. His

hair waves in dark, disorderly masses over his shoulders; his chest is

broad, and his frame powerful and stalwart; he wears a short, curling

beard, and a band round his head. He usually appears standing erect in a

graceful shell-chariot, drawn by hippocamps, or sea-horses, with golden

manes and brazen hoofs, who bound over the dancing waves with such

wonderful swiftness, that the chariot scarcely touches [103]the water. The

monsters of the deep, acknowledging their mighty lord, gambol playfully

around him, whilst the sea joyfully smooths a path for the passage of its

all-powerful ruler.

He inhabited a beautiful palace at the bottom of the sea at Ægea in

Eubœa, and also possessed a royal residence on Mount Olympus,

which, however, he only visited when his presence was required at the

council of the gods.

His wonderful palace beneath the waters was of vast extent; in its

lofty and capacious halls thousands of his followers could assemble. The

exterior of the building was of bright gold, which the continual wash of

the waters preserved untarnished; in the interior, lofty and graceful

columns supported the gleaming dome. Everywhere fountains of glistening,

silvery water played; everywhere groves and arbours of feathery-leaved

sea-plants appeared, whilst rocks of pure crystal glistened with all the

varied colours of the rainbow. Some of the paths were strewn with white

sparkling sand, interspersed with jewels, pearls, and amber. This

delightful abode was surrounded on all sides by wide fields, where there

were whole groves of dark purple coralline, and tufts of beautiful

scarlet-leaved plants, and sea-anemones of every tint. Here grew bright,

pinky sea-weeds, mosses of all hues and shades, and tall grasses, which,

growing upwards, formed emerald caves and grottoes such as the Nereides

love, whilst fish of various kinds playfully darted in and out, in the

full enjoyment of their native element. Nor was illumination wanting in

this fairy-like region, which at night was lit up by the glow-worms of

the deep.

But although Poseidon ruled with absolute power over the ocean and its

inhabitants, he nevertheless bowed submissively to the will of the great

ruler of Olympus, and appeared at all times desirous of conciliating him.

We [104]find him coming to his aid when emergency

demanded, and frequently rendering him valuable assistance against his

opponents. At the time when Zeus was harassed by the attacks of the

Giants, he proved himself a most powerful ally, engaging in single combat

with a hideous giant named Polybotes, whom he followed over the sea, and

at last succeeded in destroying, by hurling upon him the island of

Cos.

These amicable relations between the brothers were, however, sometimes

interrupted. Thus, for instance, upon one occasion Poseidon joined Hera

and Athene in a secret conspiracy to seize upon the ruler of heaven,

place him in fetters, and deprive him of the sovereign power. The

conspiracy being discovered, Hera, as the chief instigator of this

sacrilegious attempt on the divine person of Zeus, was severely

chastised, and even beaten, by her enraged spouse, as a punishment for

her rebellion and treachery, whilst Poseidon was condemned, for the space

of a whole year, to forego his dominion over the sea, and it was at this

time that, in conjunction with Apollo, he built for Laomedon the walls of

Troy.

Poseidon married a sea-nymph named Amphitrite, whom he wooed under the

form of a dolphin. She afterwards became jealous of a beautiful maiden

called Scylla, who was beloved by Poseidon, and in order to revenge

herself she threw some herbs into a well where Scylla was bathing, which

had the effect of metamorphosing her into a monster of terrible aspect,

having twelve feet, six heads with six long necks, and a voice which

resembled the bark of a dog. This awful monster is said to have inhabited

a cave at a very great height in the famous rock which still bears her

name,^[38] and was supposed

to swoop down from her rocky eminence upon every ship that passed, and

with each of her six heads to secure a victim.

Amphitrite is often represented assisting Poseidon in attaching the

sea-horses to his chariot.

[105]

The Cyclops, who have been already alluded to in the history of

Cronus, were the sons of Poseidon and Amphitrite. They were a wild race

of gigantic growth, similar in their nature to the earth-born Giants, and

had only one eye each in the middle of their foreheads. They led a

lawless life, possessing neither social manners nor fear of the gods, and

were the workmen of Hephæstus, whose workshop was supposed to be in the

heart of the volcanic mountain Ætna.

Here we have another striking instance of the manner in which the

Greeks personified the powers of nature, which they saw in active

operation around them. They beheld with awe, mingled with astonishment,

the fire, stones, and ashes which poured forth from the summit of this

and other volcanic mountains, and, with their vivacity of imagination,

found a solution of the mystery in the supposition, that the god of Fire

must be busy at work with his men in the depths of the earth, and that

the mighty flames which they beheld, issued in this manner from his

subterranean forge.

The chief representative of the Cyclops was the man-eating monster

Polyphemus, described by Homer as having been blinded and outwitted at

last by Odysseus. This monster fell in love with a beautiful nymph called

Galatea; but, as may be supposed, his addresses were not acceptable to

the fair maiden, who rejected them in favour of a youth named Acis, upon

which Polyphemus, with his usual barbarity, destroyed the life of his

rival by throwing upon him a gigantic rock. The blood of the murdered

Acis, gushing out of the rock, formed a stream which still bears his

name.

Triton, Rhoda,^[39] and

Benthesicyme were also children of Poseidon and Amphitrite.

The sea-god was the father of two giant sons called Otus and

Ephialtes.^[40] When only

nine years old they [106]were said to be twenty-seven cubits^[41] in height and nine in

breadth. These youthful giants were as rebellious as they were powerful,

even presuming to threaten the gods themselves with hostilities. During

the war of the Gigantomachia, they endeavoured to scale heaven by piling

mighty mountains one upon another. Already had they succeeded in placing

Mount Ossa on Olympus and Pelion on Ossa, when this impious project was

frustrated by Apollo, who destroyed them with his arrows. It was supposed

that had not their lives been thus cut off before reaching maturity,

their sacrilegious designs would have been carried into effect.

Pelias and Neleus were also sons of Poseidon. Their mother Tyro was

attached to the river-god Enipeus, whose form Poseidon assumed, and thus

won her love. Pelias became afterwards famous in the story of the

Argonauts, and Neleus was the father of Nestor, who was distinguished in

the Trojan War.

The Greeks believed that it was to Poseidon they were indebted for the

existence of the horse, which he is said to have produced in the

following manner: Athene and Poseidon both claiming the right to name

Cecropia (the ancient name of Athens), a violent dispute arose, which was

finally settled by an assembly of the Olympian gods, who decided that

whichever of the contending parties presented mankind with the most

useful gift, should obtain the privilege of naming the city. Upon this

Poseidon struck the ground with his trident, and the horse sprang forth

in all his untamed strength and graceful beauty. From the spot which

Athene touched with her wand, issued the olive-tree, whereupon the gods

unanimously awarded to her the victory, declaring her gift to be the

emblem of peace and plenty, whilst that of Poseidon was thought to be the

symbol of war and [107]bloodshed. Athene accordingly called the

city Athens, after herself, and it has ever since retained this name.

Poseidon tamed the horse for the use of mankind, and was believed to

have taught men the art of managing horses by the bridle. The Isthmian

games (so named because they were held on the Isthmus of Corinth), in

which horse and chariot races were a distinguishing feature, were

instituted in honour of Poseidon.

He was more especially worshipped in the Peloponnesus, though

universally revered throughout Greece and in the south of Italy. His

sacrifices were generally black and white bulls, also wild boars and

rams. His usual attributes are the trident, horse, and dolphin.

In some parts of Greece this divinity was identified with the sea-god

Nereus, for which reason the Nereides, or daughters of Nereus, are

represented as accompanying him.

NEPTUNE.

The Romans worshipped Poseidon under the name of Neptune, and invested

him with all the attributes which belong to the Greek divinity.

The Roman commanders never undertook any naval expedition without

propitiating Neptune by a sacrifice.

His temple at Rome was in the Campus Martius, and the festivals

commemorated in his honour were called Neptunalia.

SEA DIVINITIES.

OCEANUS.

Oceanus was the son of Uranus and Gæa. He was the personification of

the ever-flowing stream, which, according to the primitive notions of the

early Greeks, encircled the world, and from which sprang all the rivers

and streams that watered the earth. He was married to Tethys, one of the

Titans, and was the father of a [108]numerous progeny called the Oceanides, who

are said to have been three thousand in number. He alone, of all the

Titans, refrained from taking part against Zeus in the Titanomachia, and

was, on that account, the only one of the primeval divinities permitted

to retain his dominion under the new dynasty.

NEREUS.

Nereus appears to have been the personification of the sea in its calm

and placid moods, and was, after Poseidon, the most important of the

sea-deities. He is represented as a kind and benevolent old man,

possessing the gift of prophecy, and presiding more particularly over the

Ægean Sea, of which he was considered to be the protecting spirit. There

he dwelt with his wife Doris and their fifty blooming daughters, the

Nereides, beneath the waves in a beautiful grotto-palace, and was ever

ready to assist distressed mariners in the hour of danger.

PROTEUS.

Proteus, more familiarly known as “The Old Man of the Sea,” was a son

of Poseidon, and gifted with prophetic power. But he had an invincible

objection to being consulted in his capacity as seer, and those who

wished him to foretell events, watched for the hour of noon, when he was

in the habit of coming up to the island of Pharos,^[42] with Poseidon’s flock of seals, which

he tended at the bottom of the sea. Surrounded by these creatures of the

deep, he used to slumber beneath the grateful shade of the rocks. This

was the favourable moment to seize the prophet, who, in order to avoid

importunities, would change himself into an infinite variety of forms.

But patience gained the day; for if he were only held long enough, he

became wearied at last, and, resuming his true form, gave the information

desired, after which he dived down again to the bottom of the sea,

accompanied by the animals he tended.

[109]

TRITON and the TRITONS.

Triton was the only son of Poseidon and Amphitrite, but he possessed

little influence, being altogether a minor divinity. He is usually

represented as preceding his father and acting as his trumpeter, using a

conch-shell for this purpose. He lived with his parents in their

beautiful golden palace beneath the sea at Ægea, and his favourite

pastime was to ride over the billows on horses or sea-monsters. Triton is

always represented as half man, half fish, the body below the waist

terminating in the tail of a dolphin. We frequently find mention of

Tritons who are either the offspring or kindred of Triton.

GLAUCUS.

Glaucus is said to have become a sea-divinity in the following manner.

While angling one day, he observed that the fish he caught and threw on

the bank, at once nibbled at the grass and then leaped back into the

water. His curiosity was naturally excited, and he proceeded to gratify

it by taking up a few blades and tasting them. No sooner was this done

than, obeying an irresistible impulse, he precipitated himself into the

deep, and became a sea-god.

Like most sea-divinities he was gifted with prophetic power, and each

year visited all the islands and coasts with a train of marine monsters,

foretelling all kinds of evil. Hence fishermen dreaded his approach, and

endeavoured, by prayer and fasting, to avert the misfortunes which he

prophesied. He is often represented floating on the billows, his body

covered with mussels, sea-weed, and shells, wearing a full beard and long

flowing hair, and bitterly bewailing his immortality.

[110]

THETIS.

The silver-footed, fair-haired Thetis, who plays an important part in

the mythology of Greece, was the daughter of Nereus, or, as some assert,

of Poseidon. Her grace and beauty were so remarkable that Zeus and

Poseidon both sought an alliance with her; but, as it had been foretold

that a son of hers would gain supremacy over his father, they

relinquished their intentions, and she became the wife of Peleus, son of

Æacus. Like Proteus, Thetis possessed the power of transforming herself

into a variety of different shapes, and when wooed by Peleus she exerted

this power in order to elude him. But, knowing that persistence would

eventually succeed, he held her fast until she assumed her true form.

Their nuptials were celebrated with the utmost pomp and magnificence, and

were honoured by the presence of all the gods and goddesses, with the

exception of Eris. How the goddess of discord resented her exclusion from

the marriage festivities has already been shown.

Thetis ever retained great influence over the mighty lord of heaven,

which, as we shall see hereafter, she used in favour of her renowned son,

Achilles, in the Trojan War.

When Halcyone plunged into the sea in despair after the shipwreck and

death of her husband King Ceyx, Thetis transformed both husband and wife

into the birds called kingfishers (halcyones), which, with the tender

affection which characterized the unfortunate couple, always fly in

pairs. The idea of the ancients was that these birds brought forth their

young in nests, which float on the surface of the sea in calm weather,

before and after the shortest day, when Thetis was said to keep the

waters smooth and tranquil for their especial benefit; hence the term

“halcyon-days,” which signifies a period of rest and untroubled

felicity.

[111]

THAUMAS, PHORCYS, and CETO.

The early Greeks, with their extraordinary power of personifying all

and every attribute of Nature, gave a distinct personality to those

mighty wonders of the deep, which, in all ages, have afforded matter of

speculation to educated and uneducated alike. Among these

personifications we find Thaumas, Phorcys, and their sister Ceto, who

were the offspring of Pontus.

Thaumas (whose name signifies Wonder) typifies that peculiar,

translucent condition of the surface of the sea when it reflects,

mirror-like, various images, and appears to hold in its transparent

embrace the flaming stars and illuminated cities, which are so frequently

reflected on its glassy bosom.

Thaumas married the lovely Electra (whose name signifies the sparkling

light produced by electricity), daughter of Oceanus. Her amber-coloured

hair was of such rare beauty that none of her fair-haired sisters could

compare with her, and when she wept, her tears, being too precious to be

lost, formed drops of shining amber.

Phorcys and Ceto personified more especially the hidden perils and

terrors of the ocean. They were the parents of the Gorgons, the Græa, and

the Dragon which guarded the golden apples of the Hesperides.

LEUCOTHEA.

Leucothea was originally a mortal named Ino, daughter of Cadmus, king

of Thebes. She married Athamas, king of Orchomenus, who, incensed at her

unnatural conduct to her step-children,^[43] pursued her and her son to the

sea-shore, when, seeing no hope of escape, she flung herself with her

child into the deep. They were kindly received by the Nereides, and

became sea-divinities under the name of Leucothea and Palæmon.

[112]

THE SIRENS.

The Sirens would appear to have been personifications of those

numerous rocks and unseen dangers, which abound on the S.W. coast of

Italy. They were sea-nymphs, with the upper part of the body that of a

maiden and the lower that of a sea-bird, having wings attached to their

shoulders, and were endowed with such wonderful voices, that their sweet

songs are said to have lured mariners to destruction.

ARES (Mars).

Ares, the son of Zeus and Hera, was the god of war, who gloried in

strife for its own sake; he loved the tumult and havoc of the

battlefield, and delighted in slaughter and extermination; in fact he

presents no benevolent aspect which could possibly react favourably upon

human life.

Epic poets, in particular, represent the god of battles as a wild

ungovernable warrior, who passes through the armies like a whirlwind,

hurling to the ground the brave and cowardly alike; destroying chariots

and helmets, and triumphing over the terrible desolation which he

produces.

In all the myths concerning Ares, his sister Athene ever appears in

opposition to him, endeavouring by every means in her power to defeat his

bloodthirsty designs. Thus she assists the divine hero Diomedes at the

siege of Troy, to overcome Ares in battle, and so well does he profit by

her timely aid, that he succeeds in wounding the sanguinary war-god, who

makes his exit from the field, roaring like ten thousand bulls.

[113]

Ares appears to have been an object of aversion to all the gods of

Olympus, Aphrodite alone excepted. As the son of Hera, he had inherited

from his mother the strongest feelings of independence and contradiction,

and as he took delight in upsetting that peaceful course of state-life

which it was pre-eminently the care of Zeus to establish, he was

naturally disliked and even hated by him.

When wounded by Diomedes, as above related, he complains to his

father, but receives no sympathy from the otherwise kindly and beneficent

ruler of Olympus, who thus angrily addresses him: “Do not trouble me with

thy complaints, thou who art of all the gods of Olympus most hateful to

me, for thou delightest in nought save war and strife. The very spirit of

thy mother lives in thee, and wert thou not my son, long ago wouldst thou

have lain deeper down in the bowels of the earth than the son of

Uranus.”

Ares, upon one occasion, incurred the anger of Poseidon by slaying his

son Halirrhothios, who had insulted Alcippe, the daughter of the war-god.

For this deed, Poseidon summoned Ares to appear before the tribunal of

the Olympic gods, which was held upon a hill in Athens. Ares was

acquitted, and this event is supposed to have given rise to the name

Areopagus (or Hill of Ares), which afterwards became so famous as a court

of justice. In the Gigantomachia, Ares was defeated by the Aloidæ, the

two giant-sons of Poseidon, who put him in chains, and kept him in prison

for thirteen months.

Ares is represented as a man of youthful appearance; his tall muscular

form combines great strength with wonderful agility. In his right hand he

bears a sword or a mighty lance, while on the left arm he carries his

round shield (see next page). His demoniacal surroundings are Terror and

Fear;^[44] Enyo, the goddess

of the war-cry; Keidomos, the demon of the noise of battles; and Eris

(Contention), his twin-sister and companion, who always [114]precedes his

chariot when he rushes to the fight, the latter being evidently a simile

of the poets to express the fact that war follows contention.

Eris is represented as a woman of florid complexion, with dishevelled

hair, and her whole appearance angry and menacing. In one hand she

brandishes a poniard and a hissing adder, whilst in the other she carries

a burning torch. Her dress is torn and disorderly, and her hair

intertwined with venomous snakes. This divinity was never invoked by

mortals, except when they desired her assistance for the accomplishment

of evil purposes.

MARS.

The Roman divinity most closely resembling the Greek Ares, and

identified with him, was called Mars, Mamers, and Marspiter or Father

Mars.

The earliest Italian tribes, who were mostly engaged in the pursuit of

husbandry, regarded this deity more especially as the god of spring, who

vanquished the powers of winter, and encouraged the peaceful arts of

agriculture. But with the Romans, who were an essentially warlike nation,

Mars gradually loses his peaceful character, and, as god of war, attains,

after Jupiter, the highest position among the Olympic gods. The Romans

looked upon him as their special protector, and declared him to have been

the father of Romulus and Remus, the founders of their city. But although

he was especially [115]worshipped in Rome as god of war, he still

continued to preside over agriculture, and was also the protecting deity

who watched over the welfare of the state.

As the god who strode with warlike step to the battlefield, he was

called Gradivus (from gradus, a step), it being popularly believed

by the Romans that he himself marched before them to battle, and acted as

their invisible protector. As the presiding deity over agriculture, he

was styled Sylvanus, whilst in his character as guardian of the state, he

bore the name of Quirinus.^[45]

The priests of Mars were twelve in number, and were called Salii, or

the dancers, from the fact that sacred dances, in full armour, formed an

important item in their peculiar ceremonial. This religious order, the

members of which were always chosen from the noblest families in Rome,

was first instituted by Numa Pompilius, who intrusted to their special

charge the Anciliæ, or sacred shields. It is said that one morning, when

Numa was imploring the protection of Jupiter for the newly-founded city

of Rome, the god of heaven, as though in answer to his prayer, sent down

an oblong brazen shield, and, as it fell at the feet of the king, a voice

was heard announcing that on its preservation depended the future safety

and prosperity of Rome. In order, therefore, to lessen the chances of

this sacred treasure being abstracted, Numa caused eleven more to be made

exactly like it, which were then given into the care of the Salii.

The assistance and protection of the god of war was always solemnly

invoked before the departure of a Roman army for the field of battle, and

any reverses of fortune were invariably ascribed to his anger, which was

accordingly propitiated by means of extraordinary sin-offerings and

prayers.

In Rome a field, called the Campus Martius, was dedicated to Mars. It

was a large, open space, in which armies were collected and reviewed,

general assemblies of [116]the people held, and the young nobility

trained to martial exercises.

The most celebrated and magnificent of the numerous temples built by

the Romans in honour of this deity was the one erected by Augustus in the

Forum, to commemorate the overthrow of the murderers of Cæsar.

Of all existing statues of Mars the most renowned is that in the Villa

Ludovisi at Rome, in which he is represented as a powerful, muscular man

in the full vigour of youth. The attitude is that of thoughtful repose,

but the short, curly hair, dilated nostrils, and strongly marked features

leave no doubt as to the force and turbulence of his character. At his

feet, the sculptor has placed the little god of love, who looks up all

undaunted at the mighty war-god, as though mischievously conscious that

this unusually quiet mood is attributable to his influence.

Religious festivals in honour of Mars were generally held in the month

of March; but he had also a festival on the Ides of October, when

chariot-races took place, after which, the right-hand horse of the team

which had drawn the victorious chariot, was sacrificed to him. In ancient

times, human sacrifices, more especially prisoners of war, were offered

to him; but, at a later period, this cruel practice was discontinued.

The attributes of this divinity are the helmet, shield, and spear. The

animals consecrated to him were the wolf, horse, vulture, and

woodpecker.

Intimately associated with Mars in his character as god of war, was a

goddess called BELLONA, who was evidently the female divinity of

battle with one or other of the primitive nations of Italy (most probably

the Sabines), and is usually seen accompanying Mars, whose war-chariot

she guides. Bellona appears on the battle-field, inspired with mad rage,

cruelty, and the love of extermination. She is in full armour, her hair

is dishevelled, and she bears a scourge in one hand, and a lance in the

other.

A temple was erected to her on the Campus Martius. Before the entrance

to this edifice stood a pillar, over which a spear was thrown when war

was publicly declared. [117]

NIKE (Victoria).

Nike, the goddess of victory, was the daughter of the Titan Pallas,

and of Styx, the presiding nymph of the river of that name in the lower

world.

In her statues, Nike somewhat resembles Athene, but may easily be

recognized by her large, graceful wings and flowing drapery, which is

negligently fastened on the right shoulder, and only partially conceals

her lovely form. In her left hand, she holds aloft a crown of laurel, and

in the right, a palm-branch. In ancient sculpture, Nike is usually

represented in connection with colossal statues of Zeus or Pallas-Athene,

in which case she is life-sized, and stands on a ball, held in the open

palm of the deity she accompanies. Sometimes she is represented engaged

in inscribing the victory of a conqueror on his shield, her right foot

being slightly raised and placed on a ball.

A celebrated temple was erected to this divinity on the Acropolis at

Athens, which is still to be seen, and is in excellent preservation.

VICTORIA.

Under the name of Victoria, Nike was highly honoured by the Romans,

with whom love of conquest was an all-absorbing characteristic. There

were several sanctuaries in Rome dedicated to her, the principal of which

was on the Capitol, where it was the custom of generals, after success

had attended their arms, to erect statues of the goddess in commemoration

of their victories. The most magnificent of these statues, was that

raised by Augustus after the battle of Actium. A festival was celebrated

in honour of Nike on the 12th of April.

HERMES (Mercury).

Hermes was the swift-footed messenger, and trusted ambassador of all

the gods, and conductor of shades to Hades. He presided over the rearing

and education of [118]the young, and encouraged gymnastic

exercises and athletic pursuits, for which reason, all gymnasiums and

wrestling schools throughout Greece were adorned with his statues. He is

said to have invented the alphabet, and to have taught the art of

interpreting foreign languages, and his versatility, sagacity, and

cunning were so extraordinary, that Zeus invariably chose him as his

attendant, when, disguised as a mortal, he journeyed on earth.

Hermes was worshipped as god of eloquence, most probably from the fact

that, in his office as ambassador, this faculty was indispensable to the

successful issue of the negotiations with which he was intrusted. He was

regarded as the god who granted increase and prosperity to flocks and

herds, and, on this account, was worshipped with special veneration by

herdsmen.

In ancient times, trade was conducted chiefly by means of the exchange

of cattle. Hermes, therefore, as god of herdsmen, came to be regarded as

the protector of merchants, and, as ready wit and adroitness are valuable

qualities both in buying and selling, he was also looked upon as the

patron of artifice and cunning. Indeed, so deeply was this notion rooted

in the minds of the Greek people, that he was popularly believed to be

also god of thieves, and of all persons who live by their wits.

As the patron of commerce, Hermes was naturally supposed to be the

promoter of intercourse among nations; hence, he is essentially the god

of travellers, over whose safety he presided, and he severely punished

those who refused assistance to the lost or weary wayfarer. He was also

guardian of streets and roads, and his statues, called Hermæ (which were

pillars of stone surmounted by a head of Hermes), were placed at

cross-roads, and frequently in streets and public squares.

Being the god of all undertakings in which gain was a feature, he was

worshipped as the giver of wealth and [119]good luck, and any

unexpected stroke of fortune was attributed to his influence. He also

presided over the game of dice, in which he is said to have been

instructed by Apollo.

Hermes was the son of Zeus and Maia, the eldest and most beautiful of

the seven Pleiades (daughters of Atlas), and was born in a cave of Mount

Cyllene in Arcadia. As a mere babe, he exhibited an extraordinary faculty

for cunning and dissimulation; in fact, he was a thief from his cradle,

for, not many hours after his birth, we find him creeping stealthily out

of the cave in which he was born, in order to steal some oxen belonging

to his brother Apollo, who was at this time feeding the flocks of

Admetus. But he had not proceeded very far on his expedition before he

found a tortoise, which he killed, and, stretching seven strings across

the empty shell, invented a lyre, upon which he at once began to play

with exquisite skill. When he had sufficiently amused himself with the

instrument, he placed it in his cradle, and then resumed his journey to

Pieria, where the cattle of Admetus were grazing. Arriving at sunset at

his destination, he succeeded in separating fifty oxen from his brother’s

herd, which he now drove before him, taking the precaution to cover his

feet with sandals made of twigs of myrtle, in order to escape detection.

But the little rogue was not unobserved, for the theft had been witnessed

by an old shepherd named Battus, who was tending the flocks of Neleus,

king of Pylos (father of Nestor). Hermes, frightened at being discovered,

bribed him with the finest cow in the herd not to betray him, and Battus

promised to keep the secret. But Hermes, astute as he was dishonest,

determined to test the shepherd’s integrity. Feigning to go away, he

assumed the form of Admetus, and then returning to the spot offered the

old man two of his best oxen if he would disclose the author of the

theft. The ruse succeeded, for the avaricious shepherd, unable to resist

the tempting bait, gave the desired information, upon which Hermes,

exerting his divine power, changed him into a lump of touchstone, as a

[120]punishment for his treachery and avarice.

Hermes now killed two of the oxen, which he sacrificed to himself and the

other gods, concealing the remainder in the cave. He then carefully

extinguished the fire, and, after throwing his twig shoes into the river

Alpheus, returned to Cyllene.

Apollo, by means of his all-seeing power, soon discovered who it was

that had robbed him, and hastening to Cyllene, demanded restitution of

his property. On his complaining to Maia of her son’s conduct, she

pointed to the innocent babe then lying, apparently fast asleep, in his

cradle, whereupon, Apollo angrily aroused the pretended sleeper, and

charged him with the theft; but the child stoutly denied all knowledge of

it, and so cleverly did he play his part, that he even inquired in the

most naive manner what sort of animals cows were. Apollo threatened to

throw him into Tartarus if he would not confess the truth, but all to no

purpose. At last, he seized the babe in his arms, and brought him into

the presence of his august father, who was seated in the council chamber

of the gods. Zeus listened to the charge made by Apollo, and then sternly

desired Hermes to say where he had hidden the cattle. The child, who was

still in swaddling-clothes, looked up bravely into his father’s face and

said, “Now, do I look capable of driving away a herd of cattle; I, who

was only born yesterday, and whose feet are much too soft and tender to

tread in rough places? Until this moment, I lay in sweet sleep on my

mother’s bosom, and have never even crossed the threshold of our

dwelling. You know well that I am not guilty; but, if you wish, I will

affirm it by the most solemn oaths.” As the child stood before him,

looking the picture of innocence, Zeus could not refrain from smiling at

his cleverness and cunning, but, being perfectly aware of his guilt, he

commanded him to conduct Apollo to the cave where he had concealed the

herd, and Hermes, seeing that further subterfuge was useless,

unhesitatingly obeyed. But when the divine shepherd was about to drive

his cattle back into Pieria, Hermes, as though by chance, touched the

chords of his [121]lyre. Hitherto Apollo had heard nothing

but the music of his own three-stringed lyre and the syrinx, or Pan’s

pipe, and, as he listened entranced to the delightful strains of this new

instrument, his longing to possess it became so great, that he gladly

offered the oxen in exchange, promising at the same time, to give Hermes

full dominion over flocks and herds, as well as over horses, and all the

wild animals of the woods and forests. The offer was accepted, and, a

reconciliation being thus effected between the brothers, Hermes became

henceforth god of herdsmen, whilst Apollo devoted himself

enthusiastically to the art of music.

They now proceeded together to Olympus, where Apollo introduced Hermes

as his chosen friend and companion, and, having made him swear by the

Styx, that he would never steal his lyre or bow, nor invade his sanctuary

at Delphi, he presented him with the Caduceus, or golden wand. This wand

was surmounted by wings, and on presenting it to Hermes, Apollo informed

him that it possessed the faculty of uniting in love, all beings divided

by hate. Wishing to prove the truth of this assertion, Hermes threw it

down between two snakes which were fighting, whereupon the angry

combatants clasped each other in a loving embrace, and curling round the

staff, remained ever after permanently attached to it. The wand itself

typified power; the serpents, wisdom; and the wings, despatch—all

qualities characteristic of a trustworthy ambassador.

The young god was now presented by his father with a winged silver cap

(Petasus), and also with silver wings for his feet (Talaria), and was

forthwith appointed herald of the gods, and conductor of shades to Hades,

which office had hitherto been filled by Aïdes.

As messenger of the gods, we find him employed on all occasions

requiring special skill, tact, or despatch. Thus he conducts Hera,

Athene, and Aphrodite to Paris, leads Priam to Achilles to demand the

body of Hector, [122]binds Prometheus to Mount Caucasus,

secures Ixion to the eternally revolving wheel, destroys Argus, the

hundred-eyed guardian of Io, &c. &c.

As conductor of shades, Hermes was always invoked by the dying to

grant them a safe and speedy passage across the Styx. He also possessed

the power of bringing back departed spirits to the upper world, and was,

therefore, the mediator between the living and the dead.

The poets relate many amusing stories of the youthful tricks played by

this mischief-loving god upon the other immortals. For instance, he had

the audacity to extract the Medusa’s head from the shield of Athene,

which he playfully attached to the back of Hephæstus; he also stole the

girdle of Aphrodite; deprived Artemis of her arrows, and Ares of his

spear, but these acts were always performed with such graceful dexterity,

combined with such perfect good humour, that even the gods and goddesses

he thus provoked, were fain to pardon him, and he became a universal

favourite with them all.

It is said that Hermes was one day flying over Athens, when, looking

down into the city, he beheld a number of maidens returning in solemn

procession from the temple of Pallas-Athene. Foremost among them was

Herse, the beautiful daughter of king Cecrops, and Hermes was so struck

with her exceeding loveliness that he determined to seek an interview

with her. He accordingly presented himself at the royal palace, and

begged her sister Agraulos to favour his suit; but, being of an

avaricious turn of mind, she refused to do so without the payment of an

enormous sum of money. It did not take the messenger of the gods long to

obtain the means of fulfilling this condition, and he soon returned with

a well-filled purse. But meanwhile Athene, to punish the cupidity of

Agraulos, had caused the demon of envy to take possession of her, and the

consequence was, that, being unable to contemplate the happiness of her

sister, she sat down before the door, and resolutely refused to allow

Hermes to enter. He tried every persuasion and blandishment in his power,

but she still remained obstinate. At last, his patience [123]being

exhausted, he changed her into a mass of black stone, and, the obstacle

to his wishes being removed, he succeeded in persuading Herse to become

his wife.

In his statues, Hermes is represented as a beardless youth, with broad

chest and graceful but muscular limbs; the face is handsome and

intelligent, and a genial smile of kindly benevolence plays round the

delicately chiselled lips.

As messenger of the gods he wears the Petasus and Talaria, and bears

in his hand the Caduceus or herald’s staff.

As god of eloquence, he is often represented with chains of gold

hanging from his lips, whilst, as the patron of merchants, he bears a

purse in his hand.

The wonderful excavations in Olympia, to which allusion has already

been made, have brought to light an exquisite marble group of Hermes and

the infant Bacchus, by Praxiteles. In this great work of art, Hermes is

represented as a young and handsome man, who is looking down kindly and

affectionately at the child resting on his arm, but unfortunately nothing

remains of the infant save the right hand, which is laid lovingly on the

shoulder of his protector.

The sacrifices to Hermes consisted of incense, honey, cakes, pigs, and

especially lambs and young goats. As god of eloquence, the tongues of

animals were sacrificed to him.

MERCURY.

Mercury was the Roman god of commerce and gain. We find mention of a

temple having been erected to him [124]near the Circus Maximus

as early as B.C. 495; and he had also a temple

and a sacred fount near the Porta Capena. Magic powers were ascribed to

the latter, and on the festival of Mercury, which took place on the 25th

of May, it was the custom for merchants to sprinkle themselves and their

merchandise with this holy water, in order to insure large profits from

their wares.

The Fetiales (Roman priests whose duty it was to act as guardians of

the public faith) refused to recognize the identity of Mercury with

Hermes, and ordered him to be represented with a sacred branch as the

emblem of peace, instead of the Caduceus. In later times, however, he was

completely identified with the Greek Hermes.

DIONYSUS (Bacchus).

Dionysus, also called Bacchus (from bacca, berry), was the god

of wine, and the personification of the blessings of Nature in

general.

The worship of this divinity, which is supposed to have been

introduced into Greece from Asia (in all probability from India), first

took root in Thrace, whence it gradually spread into other parts of

Greece.

Dionysus was the son of Zeus and Semele, and was snatched by Zeus from

the devouring flames in which his mother perished, when he appeared to

her in all the splendour of his divine glory. The motherless child was

intrusted to the charge of Hermes, who conveyed him to Semele’s sister,

Ino. But Hera, still implacable in her vengeance, visited Athamas, the

husband of Ino, with madness, [125]and the child’s life being no longer safe,

he was transferred to the fostering care of the nymphs of Mount Nysa. An

aged satyr named Silenus, the son of Pan, took upon himself the office of

guardian and preceptor to the young god, who, in his turn, became much

attached to his kind tutor; hence we see Silenus always figuring as one

of the chief personages in the various expeditions of the wine-god.

Dionysus passed an innocent and uneventful childhood, roaming through

the woods and forests, surrounded by nymphs, satyrs, and shepherds.

During one of these rambles, he found a fruit growing wild, of a most

refreshing and cooling nature. This was the vine, from which he

subsequently learnt to extract a juice which formed a most exhilarating

beverage. After his companions had partaken freely of it, they felt their

whole being pervaded by an unwonted sense of pleasurable excitement, and

gave full vent to their overflowing exuberance, by shouting, singing, and

dancing. Their numbers were soon swelled by a crowd, eager to taste a

beverage productive of such extraordinary results, and anxious to join in

the worship of a divinity to whom they were indebted for this new

enjoyment. Dionysus, on his part, seeing how agreeably his discovery had

affected his immediate followers, resolved to extend the boon to mankind

in general. He saw that wine, used in moderation, would enable man to

enjoy a happier, and more sociable existence, and that, under its

invigorating influence, the sorrowful might, for a while, forget their

grief and the sick their pain. He accordingly gathered round him his

zealous followers, and they set forth on their travels, planting the vine

and teaching its cultivation wherever they went.

We now behold Dionysus at the head of a large army composed of men,

women, fauns, and satyrs, all bearing in their hands the Thyrsus (a staff

entwined with vine-branches surmounted by a fir-cone), and clashing

together cymbals and other musical instruments. Seated in a chariot drawn

by panthers, and accompanied by thousands of enthusiastic followers,

Dionysus made a triumphal [126]progress through Syria, Egypt, Arabia,

India, &c., conquering all before him, founding cities, and

establishing on every side a more civilized and sociable mode of life

among the inhabitants of the various countries through which he

passed.

When Dionysus returned to Greece from his Eastern expedition, he

encountered great opposition from Lycurgus, king of Thrace, and Pentheus,

king of Thebes. The former, highly disapproving of the wild revels which

attended the worship of the wine-god, drove away his attendants, the

nymphs of Nysa, from that sacred mountain, and so effectually intimidated

Dionysus, that he precipitated himself into the sea, where he was

received into the arms of the ocean-nymph, Thetis. But the impious king

bitterly expiated his sacrilegious conduct. He was punished with the loss

of his reason, and, during one of his mad paroxysms, killed his own son

Dryas, whom he mistook for a vine.

Pentheus, king of Thebes, seeing his subjects so completely infatuated

by the riotous worship of this new divinity, and fearing the demoralizing

effects of the unseemly nocturnal orgies held in honour of the wine-god,

strictly prohibited his people from taking any part in the wild

Bacchanalian revels. Anxious to save him from the consequences of his

impiety, Dionysus appeared to him under the form of a youth in the king’s

train, and earnestly warned him to desist from his denunciations. But the

well-meant admonition failed in its purpose, for Pentheus only became

more incensed at this interference, and, commanding Dionysus to be cast

into prison, caused the most cruel preparations to be made for his

immediate execution. But the god soon freed himself from his ignoble

confinement, for scarcely had his jailers departed, ere the prison-doors

opened of themselves, and, bursting asunder his iron chains, he escaped

to rejoin his devoted followers.

Meanwhile, the mother of the king and her sisters, inspired with

Bacchanalian fury, had repaired to Mount Cithæron, in order to join the

worshippers of the [127]wine-god in those dreadful orgies which

were solemnized exclusively by women, and at which no man was allowed to

be present. Enraged at finding his commands thus openly disregarded by

the members of his own family, Pentheus resolved to witness for himself

the excesses of which he had heard such terrible reports, and for this

purpose, concealed himself behind a tree on Mount Cithæron; but his

hiding-place being discovered, he was dragged out by the half-maddened

crew of Bacchantes and, horrible to relate, he was torn in pieces by his

own mother Agave and her two sisters.

An incident which occurred to Dionysus on one of his travels has been

a favourite subject with the classic poets. One day, as some Tyrrhenian

pirates approached the shores of Greece, they beheld Dionysus, in the

form of a beautiful youth, attired in radiant garments. Thinking to

secure a rich prize, they seized him, bound him, and conveyed him on

board their vessel, resolved to carry him with them to Asia and there

sell him as a slave. But the fetters dropped from his limbs, and the

pilot, who was the first to perceive the miracle, called upon his

companions to restore the youth carefully to the spot whence they had

taken him, assuring them that he was a god, and that adverse winds and

storms would, in all probability, result from their impious conduct. But,

refusing to part with their prisoner, they set sail for the open sea.

Suddenly, to the alarm of all on board, the ship stood still, masts and

sails were covered with clustering vines and wreaths of ivy-leaves,

streams of fragrant wine inundated the vessel, and heavenly strains of

music were heard around. The terrified crew, too late repentant, crowded

round the pilot for protection, and entreated him to steer for the shore.

But the hour of retribution had arrived. Dionysus assumed the form of a

lion, whilst beside him appeared a bear, which, with a terrific roar,

rushed upon the captain and tore him in pieces; the sailors, in an agony

of terror, leaped overboard, and were changed into dolphins. The discreet

and pious steersman was alone permitted to escape the fate of his

companions, [128]and to him Dionysus, who had resumed his

true form, addressed words of kind and affectionate encouragement, and

announced his name and dignity. They now set sail, and Dionysus desired

the pilot to land him at the island of Naxos, where he found the lovely

Ariadne, daughter of Minos, king of Crete. She had been abandoned by

Theseus on this lonely spot, and, when Dionysus now beheld her, was lying

fast asleep on a rock, worn out with sorrow and weeping. Wrapt in

admiration, the god stood gazing at the beautiful vision before him, and

when she at length unclosed her eyes, he revealed himself to her, and, in

gentle tones, sought to banish her grief. Grateful for his kind sympathy,

coming as it did at a moment when she had deemed herself forsaken and

friendless, she gradually regained her former serenity, and, yielding to

his entreaties, consented to become his wife.

Dionysus, having established his worship in various parts of the

world, descended to the realm of shades in search of his ill-fated

mother, whom he conducted to Olympus, where, under the name of Thyone,

she was admitted into the assembly of the immortal gods.

Among the most noted worshippers of Dionysus was Midas,^[46] the wealthy king of

Phrygia, the same who, as already related, gave judgment against Apollo.

Upon one occasion Silenus, the preceptor and friend of Dionysus, being in

an intoxicated condition, strayed into the rose-gardens of this monarch,

where he was found by some of the king’s attendants, who bound him with

roses and conducted him to the presence of their royal master. Midas

treated the aged satyr with the greatest consideration, and, after

entertaining him hospitably for ten days, led him back to Dionysus, who

was so grateful for the kind attention shown to his old friend, that he

offered to grant Midas any favour he chose to demand; whereupon the

avaricious monarch, not content with his boundless wealth, and still

thirsting for more, desired that everything he touched might turn to

gold. The request was [129]complied with in so literal a sense, that

the now wretched Midas bitterly repented his folly and cupidity, for,

when the pangs of hunger assailed him, and he essayed to appease his

cravings, the food became gold ere he could swallow it; as he raised the

cup of wine to his parched lips, the sparkling draught was changed into

the metal he had so coveted, and when at length, wearied and faint, he

stretched his aching frame on his hitherto luxurious couch, this also was

transformed into the substance which had now become the curse of his

existence. The despairing king at last implored the god to take back the

fatal gift, and Dionysus, pitying his unhappy plight, desired him to

bathe in the river Pactolus, a small stream in Lydia, in order to lose

the power which had become the bane of his life. Midas joyfully obeying

the injunction, was at once freed from the consequences of his avaricious

demand, and from this time forth the sands of the river Pactolus have

ever contained grains of gold.

Representations of Dionysus are of two kinds. According to the

earliest conceptions, he appears as a grave and dignified man in the

prime of life; his countenance is earnest, thoughtful, and benevolent; he

wears a full beard, and is draped from head to foot in the garb of an

Eastern monarch. But the sculptors of a later period represent him as a

youth of singular beauty, though of somewhat effeminate appearance; the

expression of the countenance is gentle and winning; the limbs are supple

and gracefully moulded; and the hair, which is adorned by a wreath of

vine or ivy leaves, falls over the shoulders in long curls. In one hand

he bears the Thyrsus, and in the other a drinking-cup with two handles,

these being his distinguishing attributes. He is often represented riding

on a panther, or seated in a chariot drawn by lions, tigers, panthers, or

lynxes.

Being the god of wine, which is calculated to promote sociability, he

rarely appears alone, but is usually accompanied by Bacchantes, satyrs,

and mountain-nymphs.

The finest modern representation of Ariadne is that by Danneker, at

Frankfort-on-the-Maine. In this statue she [130]appears riding on a

panther; the beautiful upturned face inclines slightly over the left

shoulder; the features are regular and finely cut, and a wreath of

ivy-leaves encircles the well-shaped head. With her right hand she

gracefully clasps the folds of drapery which fall away negligently from

her rounded form, whilst the other rests lightly and caressingly on the

head of the animal.

Dionysus was regarded as the patron of the drama, and at the state

festival of the Dionysia, which was celebrated with great pomp in the

city of Athens, dramatic entertainments took place in his honour, for

which all the renowned Greek dramatists of antiquity composed their

immortal tragedies and comedies.

He was also a prophetic divinity, and possessed oracles, the principal

of which was that on Mount Rhodope in Thrace.

The tiger, lynx, panther, dolphin, serpent, and ass were sacred to

this god. His favourite plants were the vine, ivy, laurel, and asphodel.

His sacrifices consisted of goats, probably on account of their being

destructive to vineyards.

BACCHUS OR LIBER.

The Romans had a divinity called Liber who presided over vegetation,

and was, on this account, identified with the Greek Dionysus, and

worshipped under the name of Bacchus.

The festival of Liber, called the Liberalia, was celebrated on the

17th of March.

AÏDES (Pluto).

Aïdes, Aïdoneus, or Hades, was the son of Cronus and Rhea, and the

youngest brother of Zeus and Poseidon. He was the ruler of that

subterranean region called Erebus, which was inhabited by the shades or

spirits of the dead, and also by those dethroned and exiled deities who

had been vanquished by Zeus and his allies. Aïdes, the grim and gloomy

monarch of this lower world, was the [131]successor of Erebus,

that ancient primeval divinity after whom these realms were called.

The early Greeks regarded Aïdes in the light of their greatest foe,

and Homer tells us that he was “of all the gods the most detested,” being

in their eyes the grim robber who stole from them their nearest and

dearest, and eventually deprived each of them of their share in

terrestrial existence. His name was so feared that it was never mentioned

by mortals, who, when they invoked him, struck the earth with their

hands, and in sacrificing to him turned away their faces.

The belief of the people with regard to a future state was, in the

Homeric age, a sad and cheerless one. It was supposed that when a mortal

ceased to exist, his spirit tenanted the shadowy outline of the human

form it had quitted. These shadows, or shades as they were called, were

driven by Aïdes into his dominions, where they passed their time, some in

brooding over the vicissitudes of fortune which they had experienced on

earth, others in regretting the lost pleasures they had enjoyed in life,

but all in a condition of semi-consciousness, from which the intellect

could only be roused to full activity by drinking of the blood of the

sacrifices offered to their shades by living friends, which, for a time,

endowed them with their former mental vigour. The only beings supposed to

enjoy any happiness in a future state were the heroes, whose acts of

daring and deeds of prowess had, during their life, reflected honour on

the land of their birth; and even these, according to Homer, pined after

their career of earthly activity. He tells us that when Odysseus visited

the lower world at the command of Circe, and held communion with the

shades of the heroes of the Trojan war, Achilles assured him that he

would rather be the poorest day-labourer on earth than reign supreme over

the realm of shades.

The early Greek poets offer but scanty allusions to Erebus. Homer

appears purposely to envelop these realms in vagueness and mystery, in

order, probably, to heighten the sensation of awe inseparably connected

with [132]the lower world. In the Odyssey he

describes the entrance to Erebus as being beyond the furthermost edge of

Oceanus, in the far west, where dwelt the Cimmerians, enveloped in

eternal mists and darkness.

In later times, however, in consequence of extended intercourse with

foreign nations, new ideas became gradually introduced, and we find

Egyptian theories with regard to a future state taking root in Greece,

which become eventually the religious belief of the whole nation. It is

now that the poets and philosophers, and more especially the teachers of

the Eleusinian Mysteries, begin to inculcate the doctrine of the future

reward and punishment of good and bad deeds. Aïdes, who had hitherto been

regarded as the dread enemy of mankind, who delights in his grim office,

and keeps the shades imprisoned in his dominions after withdrawing them

from the joys of existence, now receives them with hospitality and

friendship, and Hermes replaces him as conductor of shades to Hades.

Under this new aspect Aïdes usurps the functions of a totally different

divinity called Plutus (the god of riches), and is henceforth regarded as

the giver of wealth to mankind, in the shape of those precious metals

which lie concealed in the bowels of the earth.

The later poets mention various entrances to Erebus, which were for

the most part caves and fissures. There was one in the mountain of

Taenarum, another in Thesprotia, and a third, the most celebrated of all,

in Italy, near the pestiferous Lake Avernus, over which it is said no

bird could fly, so noxious were its exhalations.

In the dominions of Aïdes there were four great rivers, three of which

had to be crossed by all the shades. These three were Acheron (sorrow),

Cocytus (lamentation), and Styx (intense darkness), the sacred stream

which flowed nine times round these realms.

The shades were ferried over the Styx by the grim, unshaven old

boatman Charon, who, however, only took those whose bodies had received

funereal rites on earth, and who had brought with them his indispensable

toll, which was a small coin or obolus, usually placed under the [133]tongue of a dead person for this purpose.

If these conditions had not been fulfilled, the unhappy shades were left

behind to wander up and down the banks for a hundred years as restless

spirits.

On the opposite bank of the Styx was the tribunal of Minos, the

supreme judge, before whom all shades had to appear, and who, after

hearing full confession of their actions whilst on earth, pronounced the

sentence of happiness or misery to which their deeds had entitled them.

This tribunal was guarded by the terrible triple-headed dog Cerberus,

who, with his three necks bristling with snakes, lay at full length on

the ground;—a formidable sentinel, who permitted all shades to

enter, but none to return.

The happy spirits, destined to enjoy the delights of Elysium, passed

out on the right, and proceeded to the golden palace where Aïdes and

Persephone held their royal court, from whom they received a kindly

greeting, ere they set out for the Elysian Fields which lay beyond.^[47] This blissful region was

replete with all that could charm the senses or please the imagination;

the air was balmy and fragrant, rippling brooks flowed peacefully through

the smiling meadows, which glowed with the varied hues of a thousand

flowers, whilst the groves resounded with the joyous songs of birds. The

occupations and amusements of the happy shades were of the same nature as

those which they had delighted in whilst on earth. Here the warrior found

his horses, chariots, and arms, the musician his lyre, and the hunter his

quiver and bow.

In a secluded vale of Elysium there flowed a gentle, silent stream,

called Lethe (oblivion), whose waters had the effect of dispelling care,

and producing utter forgetfulness of former events. According to the

Pythagorean doctrine of the transmigration of souls, it was supposed that

after the shades had inhabited Elysium for a thousand years they were

destined to animate other bodies on [134]earth, and before

leaving Elysium they drank of the river Lethe, in order that they might

enter upon their new career without any remembrance of the past.

The guilty souls, after leaving the presence of Minos, were conducted

to the great judgment-hall of Hades, whose massive walls of solid adamant

were surrounded by the river Phlegethon, the waves of which rolled flames

of fire, and lit up, with their lurid glare, these awful realms. In the

interior sat the dread judge Rhadamanthus, who declared to each comer the

precise torments which awaited him in Tartarus. The wretched sinners were

then seized by the Furies, who scourged them with their whips, and

dragged them along to the great gate, which closed the opening to

Tartarus, into whose awful depths they were hurled, to suffer endless

torture.

Tartarus was a vast and gloomy expanse, as far below Hades as the

earth is distant from the skies. There the Titans, fallen from their high

estate, dragged out a dreary and monotonous existence; there also were

Otus and Ephialtes, those giant sons of Poseidon, who, with impious

hands, had attempted to scale Olympus and dethrone its mighty ruler.

Principal among the sufferers in this abode of gloom were Tityus,

Tantalus, Sisyphus, Ixion, and the Danaïdes.

TITYUS, one of the earth-born giants, had insulted Hera on her

way to Peitho, for which offence Zeus flung him into Tartarus, where he

suffered dreadful torture, inflicted by two vultures, which perpetually

gnawed his liver.

TANTALUS was a wise and wealthy king of Lydia, with whom the

gods themselves condescended to associate; he was even permitted to sit

at table with Zeus, who delighted in his conversation, and listened with

interest to the wisdom of his observations. Tantalus, however, elated at

these distinguished marks of divine favour, presumed upon his position,

and used unbecoming language to Zeus himself; he also stole nectar and

ambrosia from the table of the gods, with which he regaled his friends;

but his greatest crime consisted in killing his own son, [135]Pelops, and

serving him up at one of the banquets to the gods, in order to test their

omniscience. For these heinous offences he was condemned by Zeus to

eternal punishment in Tartarus, where, tortured with an ever-burning

thirst, he was plunged up to the chin in water, which, as he stooped to

drink, always receded from his parched lips. Tall trees, with spreading

branches laden with delicious fruits, hung temptingly over his head; but

no sooner did he raise himself to grasp them, than a wind arose, and

carried them beyond his reach.

SISYPHUS was a great tyrant who, according to some accounts,

barbarously murdered all travellers who came into his dominions, by

hurling upon them enormous pieces of rock. In punishment for his crimes

he was condemned to roll incessantly a huge block of stone up a steep

hill, which, as soon as it reached the summit, always rolled back again

to the plain below.

IXION was a king of Thessaly to whom Zeus accorded the

privilege of joining the festive banquets of the gods; but, taking

advantage of his exalted position, he presumed to aspire to the favour of

Hera, which so greatly incensed Zeus, that he struck him with his

thunderbolts, and commanded Hermes to throw him into Tartarus, and bind

him to an ever-revolving wheel.

The DANAÏDES were the fifty daughters of Danaus, king of Argos,

who had married their fifty cousins, the sons of Ægyptus. By the command

of their father, who had been warned by an oracle that his son-in-law

would cause his death, they all killed their husbands in one night,

Hypermnestra alone excepted. Their punishment in the lower world was to

fill with water a vessel full of holes,—a never-ending and useless

task.

Aïdes is usually represented as a man of mature years and stern

majestic mien, bearing a striking resemblance to his brother Zeus; but

the gloomy and inexorable expression of the face contrasts forcibly with

that peculiar benignity which so characterizes the countenance of the

mighty ruler of heaven. He is seated on a throne of ebony, with his

queen, the grave and sad Persephone, [136]beside him, and wears a

full beard, and long flowing black hair, which hangs straight down over

his forehead; in his hand he either bears a two-pronged fork or the keys

of the lower world, and at his feet sits Cerberus. He is sometimes seen

in a chariot of gold, drawn by four black horses, and wearing on his head

a helmet made for him by the Cyclops, which rendered the wearer

invisible. This helmet he frequently lent to mortals and immortals.

Aïdes, who was universally worshipped throughout Greece, had temples

erected to his honour in Elis, Olympia, and also at Athens.

His sacrifices, which took place at night, consisted of black sheep,

and the blood, instead of being sprinkled on the altars or received in

vessels, as at other sacrifices, was permitted to run down into a trench,

dug for this purpose. The officiating priests wore black robes, and were

crowned with cypress.

The narcissus, maiden-hair, and cypress were sacred to this

divinity.

PLUTO.

Before the introduction into Rome of the religion and literature of

Greece, the Romans had no belief in a realm of future happiness or

misery, corresponding to the Greek Hades; hence they had no god of the

lower world identical with Aïdes. They supposed that there was, in the

centre of the earth, a vast, gloomy, and impenetrably dark cavity called

Orcus, which formed a place of eternal rest for the dead. But with the

introduction of Greek mythology, the Roman Orcus became the Greek Hades,

and [137]all the Greek notions with regard to a

future state now obtained with the Romans, who worshipped Aïdes under the

name of Pluto, his other appellations being Dis (from dives, rich)

and Orcus from the dominions over which he ruled. In Rome there were no

temples erected to this divinity.

PLUTUS.

Plutus, the son of Demeter and a mortal called Iasion, was the god of

wealth, and is represented as being lame when he makes his appearance,

and winged when he takes his departure. He was supposed to be both blind

and foolish, because he bestows his gifts without discrimination, and

frequently upon the most unworthy objects.

Plutus was believed to have his abode in the bowels of the earth,

which was probably the reason why, in later times, Aïdes became

confounded with this divinity.

MINOR DIVINITIES.

THE HARPIES.

The Harpies, who, like the Furies, were employed by the gods as

instruments for the punishment of the guilty, were three female

divinities, daughters of Thaumas and Electra, called Aello, Ocypete, and

Celæno.

They were represented with the head of a fair-haired maiden and the

body of a vulture, and were perpetually devoured by the pangs of

insatiable hunger, which caused them to torment their victims by robbing

them of their food; this they either devoured with great [138]gluttony, or

defiled in such a manner as to render it unfit to be eaten.

Their wonderfully rapid flight far surpassed that of birds, or even of

the winds themselves. If any mortal suddenly and unaccountably

disappeared, the Harpies were believed to have carried him off. Thus they

were supposed to have borne away the daughters of King Pandareos to act

as servants to the Erinyes.

The Harpies would appear to be personifications of sudden tempests,

which, with ruthless violence, sweep over whole districts, carrying off

or injuring all before them.

ERINYES, EUMENIDES (Furiæ, Diræ).

The Erinyes or Furies were female divinities who personified the

torturing pangs of an evil conscience, and the remorse which inevitably

follows wrong-doing.

Their names were Alecto, Megæra, and Tisiphone, and their origin was

variously accounted for. According to Hesiod, they sprang from the blood

of Uranus, when wounded by Cronus, and were hence supposed to be the

embodiment of all the terrible imprecations, which the defeated deity

called down upon the head of his rebellious son. According to other

accounts they were the daughters of Night.

Their place of abode was the lower world, where they were employed by

Aïdes and Persephone to chastise and torment those shades who, during

their earthly career, had committed crimes, and had not been reconciled

to the gods before descending to Hades.

But their sphere of action was not confined to the realm of shades,

for they appeared upon earth as the avenging deities who relentlessly

pursued and punished murderers, perjurers, those who had failed in duty

to their parents, in hospitality to strangers, or in the respect due to

old age. Nothing escaped the piercing glance of these terrible

divinities, from whom flight was unavailing, for no corner of the earth

was so remote as [139]to be beyond their reach, nor did any

mortal dare to offer to their victims an asylum from their

persecutions.

The Furies are frequently represented with wings; their bodies are

black, blood drips from their eyes, and snakes twine in their hair. In

their hands they bear either a dagger, scourge, torch, or serpent.

When they pursued Orestes they constantly held up a mirror to his

horrified gaze, in which he beheld the face of his murdered mother.

These divinities were also called Eumenides, which signifies the

“well-meaning” or “soothed goddesses;” This appellation was given to them

because they were so feared and dreaded that people dared not call them

by their proper title, and hoped by this means to propitiate their

wrath.

In later times the Furies came to be regarded as salutary agencies,

who, by severely punishing sin, upheld the cause of morality and social

order, and thus contributed to the welfare of mankind. They now lose

their awe-inspiring aspect, and are represented, more especially in

Athens, as earnest maidens, dressed, like Artemis, in short tunics

suitable for the chase, but still retaining, in their hands, the wand of

office in the form of a snake.

Their sacrifices consisted of black sheep and a libation composed of a

mixture of honey and water, called Nephalia. A celebrated temple was

erected to the Eumenides at Athens, near the Areopagus.

MOIRÆ or FATES (Parcæ).

The ancients believed that the duration of human existence and the

destinies of mortals were regulated by three sister-goddesses, called

Clotho, Lachesis, and Atropos, who were the daughters of Zeus and

Themis.

The power which they wielded over the fate of man was significantly

indicated under the figure of a thread, which they spun out for the life

of each human being from his birth to the grave. This occupation they

divided between them. Clotho wound the flax round the distaff, [140]ready for

her sister Lachesis, who span out the thread of life, which Atropos, with

her scissors, relentlessly snapt asunder, when the career of an

individual was about to terminate.

Homer speaks of one Moira only, the daughter of Night, who represents

the moral force by which the universe is governed, and to whom both

mortals and immortals were forced to submit, Zeus himself being powerless

to avert her decrees; but in later times this conception of one

inexorable, all-conquering fate became amplified by the poets into that

above described, and the Moiræ are henceforth the special presiding

deities over the life and death of mortals.

The Moiræ are represented by the poets as stern, inexorable female

divinities, aged, hideous, and also lame, which is evidently meant to

indicate the slow and halting march of destiny, which they controlled.

Painters and sculptors, on the other hand, depicted them as beautiful

maidens of a grave but kindly aspect.

There is a charming representation of Lachesis, which depicts her in

all the grace of youth and beauty. She is sitting spinning, and at her

feet lie two masks, one comic, the other tragic, as though to convey the

idea, that, to a divinity of fate, the brightest and saddest scenes of

earthly existence are alike indifferent, and that she quietly and

steadily pursues her occupation, regardless of human weal or woe.

When represented at the feet of Aïdes in the lower world they are clad

in dark robes; but when they appear in Olympus they wear bright garments,

bespangled with stars, and are seated on radiant thrones, with crowns on

their heads.

It was considered the function of the Moiræ to indicate to the Furies

the precise torture which the wicked should undergo for their crimes.

They were regarded as prophetic divinities, and had sanctuaries in

many parts of Greece.

The Moiræ are mentioned as assisting the Charites to conduct

Persephone to the upper world at her periodical [141]reunion with her mother

Demeter. They also appear in company with Eileithyia, goddess of

birth.

NEMESIS.

Nemesis, the daughter of Nyx, represents that power which adjusts the

balance of human affairs, by awarding to each individual the fate which

his actions deserve. She rewards, humble, unacknowledged merit, punishes

crime, deprives the worthless of undeserved good fortune, humiliates the

proud and overbearing, and visits all evil on the wrong-doer; thus

maintaining that proper balance of things, which the Greeks recognized as

a necessary condition of all civilized life. But though Nemesis, in her

original character, was the distributor of rewards as well as

punishments, the world was so full of sin, that she found but little

occupation in her first capacity, and hence became finally regarded as

the avenging goddess only.

We have seen a striking instance of the manner in which this divinity

punishes the proud and arrogant in the history of Niobe. Apollo and

Artemis were merely the instruments for avenging the insult offered to

their mother; but it was Nemesis who prompted the deed, and presided over

its execution.

Homer makes no mention of Nemesis; it is therefore evident that she

was a conception of later times, when higher views of morality had

obtained among the Greek nation.

Nemesis is represented as a beautiful woman of thoughtful and benign

aspect and regal bearing; a diadem crowns her majestic brow, and she

bears in her hand a rudder, balance, and cubit;—fitting emblems of

the manner in which she guides, weighs, and measures all human events.

She is also sometimes seen with a wheel, to symbolize the rapidity with

which she executes justice. As the avenger of evil she appears winged,

bearing in her hand either a scourge or a sword, and seated in a chariot

drawn by griffins. [142]

Nemesis is frequently called Adrastia, and also Rhamnusia, from

Rhamnus in Attica, the chief seat of her worship, which contained a

celebrated statue of the goddess.

Nemesis was worshipped by the Romans, (who invoked her on the

Capitol), as a divinity who possessed the power of averting the

pernicious consequences of envy.

NIGHT AND HER CHILDREN.

DEATH, SLEEP, AND DREAMS.

NYX (Nox).

Nyx, the daughter of Chaos, being the personification of Night, was,

according to the poetic ideas of the Greeks, considered to be the mother

of everything mysterious and inexplicable, such as death, sleep, dreams,

&c. She became united to Erebus, and their children were Aether and

Hemera (Air and Daylight), evidently a simile of the poets, to indicate

that darkness always precedes light.

Nyx inhabited a palace in the dark regions of the lower world, and is

represented as a beautiful woman, seated in a chariot, drawn by two black

horses. She is clothed in dark robes, wears a long veil, and is

accompanied by the stars, which follow in her train.

THANATOS (Mors) AND HYPNUS (Somnus).

Thanatos (Death) and his twin-brother Hypnus (Sleep) were the children

of Nyx.

Their dwelling was in the realm of shades, and when they appear among

mortals, Thanatos is feared and hated as the enemy of mankind, whose hard

heart knows no pity, whilst his brother Hypnus is universally loved and

welcomed as their kindest and most beneficent friend.

But though the ancients regarded Thanatos as a gloomy and mournful

divinity, they did not represent him with any exterior repulsiveness. On

the contrary, he appears as a beautiful youth, who holds in his hand an

inverted [143]torch, emblematical of the light of life

being extinguished, whilst his disengaged arm is thrown lovingly round

the shoulder of his brother Hypnus.

Hypnus is sometimes depicted standing erect with closed eyes; at

others he is in a recumbent position beside his brother Thanatos, and

usually bears a poppy-stalk in his hand.

A most interesting description of the abode of Hypnus is given by Ovid

in his Metamorphoses. He tells us how the god of Sleep dwelt in a

mountain-cave near the realm of the Cimmerians, which the sun never

pierced with his rays. No sound disturbed the stillness, no song of

birds, not a branch moved, and no human voice broke the profound silence

which reigned everywhere. From the lowermost rocks of the cave issued the

river Lethe, and one might almost have supposed that its course was

arrested, were it not for the low, monotonous hum of the water, which

invited slumber. The entrance was partially hidden by numberless white

and red poppies, which Mother Night had gathered and planted there, and

from the juice of which she extracts drowsiness, which she scatters in

liquid drops all over the earth, as soon as the sun-god has sunk to rest.

In the centre of the cave stands a couch of blackest ebony, with a bed of

down, over which is laid a coverlet of sable hue. Here the god himself

reposes, surrounded by innumerable forms. These are idle dreams, more

numerous than the sands of the sea. Chief among them is Morpheus, that

changeful god, who may assume any shape or form he pleases. Nor can the

god of Sleep resist his own power; for though he may rouse himself for a

while, he soon succumbs to the drowsy influences which surround him.

MORPHEUS.

Morpheus, the son of Hypnus, was the god of Dreams.

He is always represented winged, and appears sometimes as a youth,

sometimes as an old man. In his hand he bears a cluster of poppies, and

as he steps with [144]noiseless footsteps over the earth, he

gently scatters the seeds of this sleep-producing plant over the eyes of

weary mortals.

Homer describes the House of Dreams as having two gates: one, whence

issue all deceptive and flattering visions, being formed of ivory; the

other, through which proceed those dreams which are fulfilled, of

horn.

THE GORGONS.

The Gorgons, Stheno, Euryale, and Medusa, were the three daughters of

Phorcys and Ceto, and were the personification of those benumbing, and,

as it were, petrifying sensations, which result from sudden and extreme

fear.

They were frightful winged monsters, whose bodies were covered with

scales; hissing, wriggling snakes clustered round their heads instead of

hair; their hands were of brass; their teeth resembled the tusks of a

wild boar; and their whole aspect was so appalling, that they are said to

have turned into stone all who beheld them.

These terrible sisters were supposed to dwell in that remote and

mysterious region in the far West, beyond the sacred stream of

Oceanus.

The Gorgons were the servants of Aïdes, who made use of them to

terrify and overawe those shades, doomed to be kept in a constant state

of unrest as a punishment for their misdeeds, whilst the Furies, on their

part, scourged them with their whips and tortured them incessantly.

The most celebrated of the three sisters was Medusa, who alone was

mortal. She was originally a golden-haired and very beautiful maiden,

who, as a priestess of Athene, was devoted to a life of celibacy; but,

being wooed by Poseidon, whom she loved in return, she forgot her vows,

and became united to him in marriage. For this offence she was punished

by the goddess in a most terrible manner. Each wavy lock of the beautiful

hair which had so charmed her husband, was changed into a [145]venomous

snake; her once gentle, love-inspiring eyes now became blood-shot,

furious orbs, which excited fear and disgust in the mind of the beholder;

whilst her former roseate hue and milk-white skin assumed a loathsome

greenish tinge. Seeing herself thus transformed into so repulsive an

object, Medusa fled from her home, never to return. Wandering about,

abhorred, dreaded, and shunned by all the world, she now developed into a

character, worthy of her outward appearance. In her despair she fled to

Africa, where, as she passed restlessly from place to place, infant

snakes dropped from her hair, and thus, according to the belief of the

ancients, that country became the hotbed of these venomous reptiles. With

the curse of Athene upon her, she turned into stone whomsoever she gazed

upon, till at last, after a life of nameless misery, deliverance came to

her in the shape of death, at the hands of Perseus.

It is well to observe that when the Gorgons are spoken of in the

singular, it is Medusa who is alluded to.

Medusa was the mother of Pegasus and Chrysaor, father of the

three-headed, winged giant Geryones, who was slain by Heracles.

GRÆÆ.

The Grææ, who acted as servants to their sisters the Gorgons, were

also three in number; their names were Pephredo, Enyo, and Dino.

In their original conception they were merely personifications of

kindly and venerable old age, possessing all its benevolent attributes

without its natural infirmities. They were old and gray from their birth,

and so they ever remained. In later times, however, they came to be

regarded as misshapen females, decrepid, and hideously ugly, having only

one eye, one tooth, and one gray wig between them, which they lent to

each other, when one of them wished to appear before the world.

When Perseus entered upon his expedition to slay the Medusa, he

repaired to the abode of the Grææ, in the far [146]west, to inquire the

way to the Gorgons, and on their refusing to give any information, he

deprived them of their one eye, tooth, and wig, and did not restore them

until he received the necessary directions.

SPHINX.

The Sphinx was an ancient Egyptian divinity, who personified wisdom,

and the fertility of nature. She is represented as a lion-couchant, with

the head and bust of a woman, and wears a peculiar sort of hood, which

completely envelops her head, and falls down on either side of the

face.

Transplanted into Greece, this sublime and mysterious Egyptian deity

degenerates into an insignificant, and yet malignant power, and though

she also deals in mysteries, they are, as we shall see, of a totally

different character, and altogether inimical to human life.

The Sphinx is represented, according to Greek genealogy, as the

offspring of Typhon and Echidna.^[48] Hera, being upon one occasion

displeased with the Thebans, sent them this awful monster, as a

punishment for their offences. Taking her seat on a rocky eminence near

the city of Thebes, commanding a pass which the Thebans were compelled to

traverse in their usual way of business, she propounded to all comers a

riddle, and if they failed to solve it, she tore them in pieces.

During the reign of King Creon, so many people had fallen a sacrifice

to this monster, that he determined to use every effort to rid the

country of so terrible a scourge. On consulting the oracle of Delphi, he

was informed that the only way to destroy the Sphinx was to solve one of

her riddles, when she would immediately precipitate herself from the rock

on which she was seated.

Creon, accordingly, made a public declaration to the effect, that

whoever could give the true interpretation of a riddle propounded by the

monster, should obtain the crown, and the hand of his sister Jocaste.

Œdipus offered [147]himself as a candidate, and proceeding to

the spot where she kept guard, received from her the following riddle for

solution: “What creature goes in the morning on four legs, at noon on

two, and in the evening on three?” Œdipus replied, that it must be

man, who during his infancy creeps on all fours, in his prime walks erect

on two legs, and when old age has enfeebled his powers, calls a staff to

his assistance, and thus has, as it were, three legs.

The Sphinx no sooner heard this reply, which was the correct solution

of her riddle, than she flung herself over the precipice, and perished in

the abyss below.

The Greek Sphinx may be recognized by having wings and by being of

smaller dimensions than the Egyptian Sphinx.

TYCHE (Fortuna) AND ANANKE (Necessitas).

TYCHE (Fortuna).

Tyche personified that peculiar combination of circumstances which we

call luck or fortune, and was considered to be the source of all

unexpected events in human life, whether good or evil. If a person

succeeded in all he undertook without possessing any special merit of his

own, Tyche was supposed to have smiled on his birth. If, on the other

hand, undeserved ill-luck followed him through life, and all his efforts

resulted in failure, it was ascribed to her adverse influence.

This goddess of Fortune is variously represented. Sometimes she is

depicted bearing in her hand two rudders, with one of which she steers

the bark of the fortunate, and with the other that of the unfortunate

among mortals. In later times she appears blindfolded, and stands on a

ball or wheel, indicative of the fickleness and ever-revolving [148]changes of

fortune. She frequently bears the sceptre and cornucopia^[49] or horn of plenty, and is usually

winged. In her temple at Thebes, she is represented holding the infant

Plutus in her arms, to symbolize her power over riches and

prosperity.

Tyche was worshipped in various parts of Greece, but more particularly

by the Athenians, who believed in her special predilection for their

city.

FORTUNA.

Tyche was worshipped in Rome under the name of Fortuna, and held a

position of much greater importance among the Romans than the Greeks.

In later times Fortuna is never represented either winged or standing

on a ball; she merely bears the cornucopia. It is evident, therefore,

that she had come to be regarded as the goddess of good luck only, who

brings blessings to man, and not, as with the Greeks, as the

personification of the fluctuations of fortune.

In addition to Fortuna, the Romans worshipped Felicitas as the giver

of positive good fortune.

ANANKE (Necessitas).

As Ananke, Tyche assumes quite another character, and becomes the

embodiment of those immutable laws of nature, by which certain causes

produce certain inevitable results.

In a statue of this divinity at Athens she was represented with hands

of bronze, and surrounded with nails and hammers. The hands of bronze

probably indicated the irresistible power of the inevitable, and the

hammer and chains the fetters which she forged for man.

Ananke was worshipped in Rome under the name of Necessitas.

[149]

KER.

In addition to the Moiræ, who presided over the life of mortals, there

was another divinity, called Ker, appointed for each human being at the

moment of his birth. The Ker belonging to an individual was believed to

develop with his growth, either for good or evil; and when the ultimate

fate of a mortal was about to be decided, his Ker was weighed in the

balance, and, according to the preponderance of its worth or

worthlessness, life or death was awarded to the human being in question.

It becomes evident, therefore, that according to the belief of the early

Greeks, each individual had it in his power, to a certain extent, to

shorten or prolong his own existence.

The Keres, who are frequently mentioned by Homer, were the goddesses

who delighted in the slaughter of the battle-field.

ATE.

Ate, the daughter of Zeus and Eris, was a divinity who delighted in

evil.

Having instigated Hera to deprive Heracles of his birthright, her

father seized her by the hair of her head, and hurled her from Olympus,

forbidding her, under the most solemn imprecations, ever to return.

Henceforth she wandered among mankind, sowing dissension, working

mischief, and luring men to all actions inimical to their welfare and

happiness. Hence, when a reconciliation took place between friends who

had quarrelled, Ate was blamed as the original cause of disagreement.

MOMUS.

Momus, the son of Nyx, was the god of raillery and ridicule, who

delighted to criticise, with bitter sarcasm, the actions of gods and men,

and contrived to discover in all things some defect or blemish. Thus when

Prometheus created the first man, Momus considered his work incomplete

because there was no aperture in the breast through which his inmost

thoughts might be read. He [150]also found fault with a house built by

Athene because, being unprovided with the means of locomotion, it could

never be removed from an unhealthy locality. Aphrodite alone defied his

criticism, for, to his great chagrin, he could find no fault with her

perfect form.^[50]

In what manner the ancients represented this god is unknown. In modern

art he is depicted like a king’s jester, with a fool’s cap and bells.

EROS (Cupid, Amor) AND PSYCHE.

According to Hesiod’s Theogony, Eros, the divine spirit of Love,

sprang forth from Chaos, while all was still in confusion, and by his

beneficent power reduced to order and harmony the shapeless, conflicting

elements, which, under his influence, began to assume distinct forms.

This ancient Eros is represented as a full-grown and very beautiful

youth, crowned with flowers, and leaning on a shepherd’s crook.

In the course of time, this beautiful conception gradually faded away,

and though occasional mention still continues to be made of the Eros of

Chaos, he is replaced by the son of Aphrodite, the popular,

mischief-loving little god of Love, so familiar to us all.

In one of the myths concerning Eros, Aphrodite is described as

complaining to Themis, that her son, though so beautiful, did not appear

to increase in stature; whereupon Themis suggested that his small

proportions were probably attributable to the fact of his being always

alone, and advised his mother to let him have a companion. Aphrodite

accordingly gave him, as a playfellow, his younger brother Anteros

(requited love), and soon had the gratification of seeing the little Eros

begin to grow and thrive; but, curious to relate, this desirable result

only continued as long as the brothers remained together, for the moment

they were separated, Eros shrank once more to his original size.

[151]

By degrees the conception of Eros became multiplied and we hear of

little love-gods (Amors), who appear under the most charming and

diversified forms. These love-gods, who afforded to artists inexhaustible

subjects for the exercise of their imagination, are represented as being

engaged in various occupations, such as hunting, fishing, rowing, driving

chariots, and even busying themselves in mechanical labour.

Perhaps no myth is more charming and interesting than that of Eros and

Psyche, which is as follows:—Psyche, the youngest of three

princesses, was so transcendently beautiful that Aphrodite herself became

jealous of her, and no mortal dared to aspire to the honour of her hand.

As her sisters, who were by no means equal to her in attractions, were

married, and Psyche still remained unwedded, her father consulted the

oracle of Delphi, and, in obedience to the divine response, caused her to

be dressed as though for the grave, and conducted to the edge of a

yawning precipice. No sooner was she alone than she felt herself lifted

up, and wafted away by the gentle west wind Zephyrus, who transported her

to a verdant meadow, in the midst of which stood a stately palace,

surrounded by groves and fountains.

Here dwelt Eros, the god of Love, in whose arms Zephyrus deposited his

lovely burden. Eros, himself unseen, wooed her in the softest accents of

affection; but warned her, as she valued his love, not to endeavour to

behold his form. For some time Psyche was obedient to the injunction of

her immortal spouse, and made no effort to gratify her natural curiosity;

but, unfortunately, in the midst of her happiness she was seized with an

unconquerable longing for the society of her [152]sisters, and, in

accordance with her desire, they were conducted by Zephyrus to her

fairy-like abode. Filled with envy at the sight of her felicity, they

poisoned her mind against her husband, and telling her that her unseen

lover was a frightful monster, they gave her a sharp dagger, which they

persuaded her to use for the purpose of delivering herself from his

power.

After the departure of her sisters, Psyche resolved to take the first

opportunity of following their malicious counsel. She accordingly rose in

the dead of night, and taking a lamp in one hand and a dagger in the

other, stealthily approached the couch where Eros was reposing, when,

instead of the frightful monster she had expected to see, the beauteous

form of the god of Love greeted her view. Overcome with surprise and

admiration, Psyche stooped down to gaze more closely on his lovely

features, when, from the lamp which she held in her trembling hand, there

fell a drop of burning oil upon the shoulder of the sleeping god, who

instantly awoke, and seeing Psyche standing over him with the instrument

of death in her hand, sorrowfully reproached her for her treacherous

designs, and, spreading out his wings, flew away.

In despair at having lost her lover, the unhappy Psyche endeavoured to

put an end to her existence by throwing herself into the nearest river;

but instead of closing over her, the waters bore her gently to the

opposite bank, where Pan (the god of shepherds) received her, and

consoled her with the hope of becoming eventually reconciled to her

husband.

Meanwhile her wicked sisters, in expectation of meeting with the same

good fortune which had befallen Psyche, placed themselves on the edge of

the rock, but were both precipitated into the chasm below.

Psyche herself, filled with a restless yearning for her lost love,

wandered all over the world in search of him. At length she appealed to

Aphrodite to take compassion on her; but the goddess of Beauty, still

jealous of her charms, imposed upon her the hardest tasks, the

accomplishment of which often appeared impossible. In these [153]she was always

assisted by invisible, beneficent beings, sent to her by Eros, who still

loved her, and continued to watch over her welfare.

Psyche had to undergo a long and severe penance before she became

worthy to regain the happiness, which she had so foolishly trifled away.

At last Aphrodite commanded her to descend into the under world, and

obtain from Persephone a box containing all the charms of beauty.

Psyche’s courage now failed her, for she concluded that death must of

necessity precede her entrance into the realm of shades. About to abandon

herself to despair, she heard a voice which warned her of every danger to

be avoided on her perilous journey, and instructed her with regard to

certain precautions to be observed. These were as follows:—not to

omit to provide herself with the ferryman’s toll for Charon, and the cake

to pacify Cerberus, also to refrain from taking any part in the banquets

of Aïdes and Persephone, and, above all things, to bring the box of

beauty charms unopened to Aphrodite. In conclusion, the voice assured

her, that compliance with the above conditions would insure for her a

safe return to the realms of light. But, alas, Psyche, who had implicitly

followed all injunctions, could not withstand the temptation of the last

condition; and, hardly had she quitted the lower world, when, unable to

resist the curiosity which devoured her, she raised the lid of the box

with eager expectation. But, instead of the wondrous charms of beauty

which she expected to behold, there issued from the casket a dense black

vapour, which had the effect of throwing her into a death-like sleep, out

of which Eros, who had long hovered round her unseen, at length awoke her

with the point of one of his golden arrows. He gently reproached her with

this second proof of her curiosity and folly, and then, having persuaded

Aphrodite to be reconciled to his beloved, he induced Zeus to admit her

among the immortal gods.

Their reunion was celebrated amidst the rejoicings of all the Olympian

deities. The Graces shed perfume on [154]their path, the Hours

sprinkled roses over the sky, Apollo added the music of his lyre, and the

Muses united their voices in a glad chorus of delight.

This myth would appear to be an allegory, which signifies that the

soul, before it can be reunited to its original divine essence, must be

purified by the chastening sorrows and sufferings of its earthly

career.^[51]

Eros is represented as a lovely boy, with rounded limbs, and a merry,

roguish expression. He has golden wings, and a quiver slung over his

shoulder, which contained his magical and unerring arrows; in one hand he

bears his golden bow, and in the other a torch.

He is also frequently depicted riding on a lion, dolphin, or eagle, or

seated in a chariot drawn by stags or wild boars, undoubtedly

emblematical of the power of love as the subduer of all nature, even of

the wild animals.

In Rome, Eros was worshipped under the name of Amor or Cupid.

HYMEN.

Hymen or Hymenæus, the son of Apollo and the muse Urania, was the god

who presided over marriage and nuptial solemnities, and was hence invoked

at all marriage festivities.

There is a myth concerning this divinity, which tells us that Hymen

was a beautiful youth of very poor parents, who fell in love with a

wealthy maiden, so far above him in rank, that he dared not cherish the

hope of ever becoming united to her. Still he missed no opportunity of

seeing her, and, upon one occasion, disguised himself as [155]a girl, and

joined a troop of maidens, who, in company with his beloved, were

proceeding from Athens to Eleusis, in order to attend a festival of

Demeter. On their way thither they were surprised by pirates, who carried

them off to a desert island, where the ruffians, after drinking deeply,

fell into a heavy sleep. Hymen, seizing the opportunity, slew them all,

and then set sail for Athens, where he found the parents of the maidens

in the greatest distress at their unaccountable disappearance. He

comforted them with the assurance that their children should be restored

to them, provided they would promise to give him in marriage the maiden

he loved. The condition being gladly complied with, he at once returned

to the island, and brought back the maidens in safety to Athens,

whereupon he became united to the object of his love; and their union

proved so remarkably happy, that henceforth the name of Hymen became

synonymous with conjugal felicity.

IRIS (The Rainbow).

Iris, the daughter of Thaumas and Electra, personified the rainbow,

and was the special attendant and messenger of the queen of heaven, whose

commands she executed with singular tact, intelligence, and

swiftness.

Most primitive nations have regarded the rainbow as a bridge of

communication between heaven and earth, and this is doubtless the reason

why Iris, who represented that beautiful phenomenon of nature, should

have been invested by the Greeks with the office of communicating between

gods and men.

Iris is usually represented seated behind the chariot of Hera, ready

to do the bidding of her royal mistress. She appears under the form of a

slender maiden of great beauty, robed in an airy fabric of variegated

hues, resembling mother-of-pearl; her sandals are bright as burnished

silver, she has golden wings, and wherever she appears, a radiance of

light, and a sweet odour, as of delicate spring flowers, pervades the

air. [156]

HEBE (Juventas).

Hebe was the personification of eternal youth under its most

attractive and joyous aspect.

She was the daughter of Zeus and Hera, and though of such

distinguished rank, is nevertheless represented as cup-bearer to the

gods; a forcible exemplification of the old patriarchal custom, in

accordance with which the daughters of the house, even when of the

highest lineage, personally assisted in serving the guests.

Hebe is represented as a comely, modest maiden, small, of a

beautifully rounded contour, with nut-brown tresses and sparkling eyes.

She is often depicted pouring out nectar from an upraised vessel, or

bearing in her hand a shallow dish, supposed to contain ambrosia, the

ever youth-renewing food of the immortals.

In consequence of an act of awkwardness, which caused her to slip

while serving the gods, Hebe was deprived of her office, which was

henceforth delegated to Ganymedes, son of Tros.

Hebe afterwards became the bride of Heracles, when, after his

apotheosis, he was received among the immortals.

JUVENTAS.

Juventas was the Roman divinity identified with Hebe, whose

attributes, however, were regarded by the Romans as applying more

particularly to the imperishable vigour and immortal glory of the

state.

In Rome, several temples were erected in honour of this goddess. [157]

GANYMEDES.

Ganymedes, the youngest son of Tros, king of Troy, was one day drawing

water from a well on Mount Ida, when he was observed by Zeus, who, struck

with his wonderful beauty, sent his eagle to transport him to Olympus,

where he was endowed with immortality, and appointed cup-bearer to the

gods.

Ganymedes is represented as a youth of exquisite beauty, with short

golden locks, delicately chiselled features, beaming blue eyes, and

pouting lips.

THE MUSES.

Of all the Olympic deities, none occupy a more distinguished position

than the Muses, the nine beautiful daughters of Zeus and Mnemosyne.

In their original signification, they presided merely over music,

song, and dance; but with the progress of civilization the arts and

sciences claimed their special presiding divinities, and we see these

graceful creations, in later times, sharing among them various functions,

such as poetry, astronomy, &c.

The Muses were honoured alike by mortals and immortals. In Olympus,

where Apollo acted as their leader, no banquet or festivity was

considered complete without their joy-inspiring presence, and on earth no

social gathering was celebrated without libations being poured out to

them; nor was any task involving intellectual effort ever undertaken,

without earnestly supplicating their assistance. They endowed their

chosen favourites with knowledge, wisdom, and understanding; they

bestowed upon the orator the gift of eloquence, inspired the poet with

his noblest thoughts, and the musician with his sweetest harmonies.

Like so many of the Greek divinities, however, the refined conception

of the Muses is somewhat marred by the acerbity with which they punished

any effort on the part [158]of mortals to rival them in their divine

powers. An instance of this is seen in the case of Thamyris, a Thracian

bard, who presumed to invite them to a trial of skill in music. Having

vanquished him, they not only afflicted him with blindness, but deprived

him also of the power of song.

Another example of the manner in which the gods punished presumption

and vanity is seen in the story of the daughters of King Pierus. Proud of

the perfection to which they had brought their skill in music, they

presumed to challenge the Muses themselves in the art over which they

specially presided. The contest took place on Mount Helicon, and it is

said that when the mortal maidens commenced their song, the sky became

dark and misty, whereas when the Muses raised their heavenly voices, all

nature seemed to rejoice, and Mount Helicon itself moved with exultation.

The Pierides were signally defeated, and were transformed by the Muses

into singing birds, as a punishment for having dared to challenge

comparison with the immortals.

Undeterred by the above example, the Sirens also entered into a

similar contest. The songs of the Muses were loyal and true, whilst those

of the Sirens were the false and deceptive strains with which so many

unfortunate mariners had been lured to their death. The Sirens were

defeated by the Muses, and as a mark of humiliation, were deprived of the

feathers with which their bodies were adorned.

The oldest seat of the worship of the Muses was Pieria in Thrace,

where they were supposed to have first seen the light of day. Pieria is a

district on one of the sloping declivities of Mount Olympus, whence a

number of rivulets, as they flow towards the plains beneath, produce

those sweet, soothing sounds, which may possibly have suggested this spot

as a fitting home for the presiding divinities of song.

They dwelt on the summits of Mounts Helicon, Parnassus, and Pindus,

and loved to haunt the springs and fountains which gushed forth amidst

these rocky [159]heights, all of which were sacred to them

and to poetic inspiration. Aganippe and Hippocrene on Mount Helicon, and

the Castalian spring on Mount Parnassus, were sacred to the Muses. The

latter flowed between two lofty rocks above the city of Delphi, and in

ancient times its waters were introduced into a square stone basin, where

they were retained for the use of the Pythia and the priests of

Apollo.

The libations to these divinities consisted of water, milk, and honey,

but never of wine.

Their names and functions are as follows:—

CALLIOPE, the most honoured of the Muses, presided over heroic

song and epic poetry, and is represented with a pencil in her hand, and a

slate upon her knee.

CLIO, the muse of History, holds in her hand a roll of

parchment, and wears a wreath of laurel.

MELPOMENE, the muse of Tragedy, bears a tragic mask.

THALIA, the muse of Comedy, carries in her right hand a

shepherd’s crook, and has a comic mask beside her.

POLYHYMNIA, the muse of Sacred Hymns, is crowned with a wreath

of laurel. She is always represented in a thoughtful attitude, and

entirely enveloped in rich folds of drapery.

TERPSICHORE, the muse of Dance and Roundelay, is represented in

the act of playing on a seven-stringed lyre.

URANIA, the muse of Astronomy, stands erect, and bears in her

left hand a celestial globe.

EUTERPE, the muse of Harmony, is represented bearing a musical

instrument, usually a flute.

ERATO, the muse of Love and hymeneal songs, wears a wreath of

laurel, and is striking the chords of a lyre. [160]

Erato.

Euterpe.

Terpsichore.

Clio.

With regard to the origin of the Muses, it is said that they were

created by Zeus in answer to a request on the part of the victorious

deities, after the war with the [161]Titans, that some special divinities

should be called into existence, in order to commemorate in song the

glorious deeds of the Olympian gods.

Polyhymnia.

Thalia.

Melpomene.

Urania.

[162]

PEGASUS.

Pegasus was a beautiful winged horse who sprang from the body of

Medusa when she was slain by the hero Perseus, the son of Zeus and Danaë.

Spreading out his wings he immediately flew to the top of Mount Olympus,

where he was received with delight and admiration by all the immortals. A

place in his palace was assigned to him by Zeus, who employed him to

carry his thunder and lightning. Pegasus permitted none but the gods to

mount him, except in the case of Bellerophon, whom, at the command of

Athene, he carried aloft, in order that he might slay the Chimæra with

his arrows.

The later poets represent Pegasus as being at the service of the

Muses, and for this reason he is more celebrated in modern times than in

antiquity. He would appear to represent that poetical inspiration, which

tends to develop man’s higher nature, and causes the mind to soar

heavenwards. The only mention by the ancients of Pegasus in connection

with the Muses, is the story of his having produced with his hoofs, the

famous fountain Hippocrene.

It is said that during their contest with the Pierides, the Muses

played and sang on the summit of Mount Helicon with such extraordinary

power and sweetness, that heaven and earth stood still to listen, whilst

the mountain raised itself in joyous ecstasy towards the abode of the

celestial gods. Poseidon, seeing his special function thus interfered

with, sent Pegasus to check the boldness of the mountain, in daring to

move without his permission. When Pegasus reached the summit, he stamped

the ground with his hoofs, and out gushed the waters of Hippocrene,

afterwards so renowned as the sacred fount, whence the Muses quaffed

their richest draughts of inspiration.

THE HESPERIDES.

The Hesperides, the daughters of Atlas, dwelt in an island in the far

west, whence they derived their name. [163]

They were appointed by Hera to act as guardians to a tree bearing

golden apples, which had been presented to her by Gæa on the occasion of

her marriage with Zeus.

It is said that the Hesperides, being unable to withstand the

temptation of tasting the golden fruit confided to their care, were

deprived of their office, which was henceforth delegated to the terrible

dragon Ladon, who now became the ever-watchful sentinel of these precious

treasures.

The names of the Hesperides were Aegle, Arethusa, and Hesperia.

CHARITES (Gratiæ) GRACES.

All those gentler attributes which beautify and refine human existence

were personified by the Greeks under the form of three lovely sisters,

Euphrosyne, Aglaia, and Thalia, the daughters of Zeus and Eurynome (or,

according to later writers, of Dionysus and Aphrodite).

They are represented as beautiful, slender maidens in the full bloom

of youth, with hands and arms lovingly intertwined, and are either

undraped, or wear a fleecy, transparent garment of an ethereal

fabric.

They portray every gentle emotion of the heart, which vents itself in

friendship and benevolence, and were believed to preside over those

qualities which constitute grace, modesty, unconscious beauty,

gentleness, kindliness, innocent joy, purity of mind and body, and

eternal youth.

They not only possessed the most perfect beauty themselves, but also

conferred this gift upon others. All the enjoyments of life were enhanced

by their presence, and were deemed incomplete without them; and wherever

joy or pleasure, grace and gaiety reigned, there they were supposed to be

present.

Temples and altars were everywhere erected in their honour, and people

of all ages and of every rank in life entreated their favour. Incense was

burnt daily upon their altars, and at every banquet they were invoked,

[164]and a libation poured out to them, as they

not only heightened all enjoyment, but also by their refining influence

moderated the exciting effects of wine.

Music, eloquence, poetry, and art, though the direct work of the

Muses, received at the hands of the Graces an additional touch of

refinement and beauty; for which reason they are always regarded as the

friends of the Muses, with whom they lived on Mount Olympus.

Their special function was to act, in conjunction with the Seasons, as

attendants upon Aphrodite, whom they adorned with wreaths of flowers, and

she emerges from their hands like the Queen of Spring, perfumed with the

odour of roses and violets, and all sweet-scented blossoms.

The Graces are frequently seen in attendance on other divinities; thus

they carry music for Apollo, myrtles for Aphrodite, &c., and

frequently accompany the Muses, Eros, or Dionysus.

HORÆ (Seasons).

Closely allied to the Graces were the Horæ, or Seasons, who were also

represented as three beautiful maidens, daughters of Zeus and Themis.

Their names were Eunomia, Dice, and Irene.

It may appear strange that these divinities, presiding over the

seasons, should be but three in number, but this is quite in accordance

with the notions of the ancient Greeks, who only recognized spring,

summer, and autumn as seasons; nature being supposed to be wrapt in death

or slumber, during that cheerless and unproductive portion of the year

which we call winter. In some parts of Greece there were but two Horæ,

Thallo, goddess of the bloom, and Carpo, of the corn and fruit-bearing

season.

The Horæ are always regarded as friendly towards mankind, and totally

devoid of guile or subtlety; they are represented as joyous, but gentle

maidens, crowned with flowers, and holding each other by the hand in a

round dance. When they are depicted separately as personifications of the

different seasons, the Hora [165]representing spring appears laden with

flowers, that of summer bears a sheaf of corn, whilst the personification

of autumn has her hands filled with clusters of grapes and other fruits.

They also appear in company with the Graces in the train of Aphrodite,

and are seen with Apollo and the Muses.

They are inseparably connected with all that is good and beautiful in

nature, and as the regular alternation of the seasons, like all her other

operations, demands the most perfect order and regularity, the Horæ,

being the daughters of Themis, came to be regarded as the representatives

of order, and the just administration of human affairs in civilized

communities. Each of these graceful maidens took upon herself a separate

function: Eunomia presided more especially over state life, Dice guarded

the interests of individuals, whilst Irene, the gayest and brightest of

the three sisters, was the light-hearted companion of Dionysus.

The Horæ were also the deities of the fast-fleeting hours, and thus

presided over the smaller, as well as the larger divisions of time. In

this capacity they assist every morning in yoking the celestial horses to

the glorious chariot of the sun, which they again help to unyoke when he

sinks to rest.

In their original conception they were personifications of the clouds,

and are described as opening and closing the gates of heaven, and causing

fruits and flowers to spring forth, when they pour down upon them their

refreshing and life-giving streams.

THE NYMPHS.

The graceful beings called the Nymphs were the presiding deities of

the woods, grottoes, streams, meadows, &c.

These divinities were supposed to be beautiful maidens of fairy-like

form, and robed in more or less shadowy garments. They were held in the

greatest veneration, though, being minor divinities, they had no temples

[166]dedicated to them, but were worshipped in

caves or grottoes, with libations of milk, honey, oil, &c.

They may be divided into three distinct classes, viz., water,

mountain, and tree or wood nymphs.

WATER NYMPHS.

OCEANIDES, NEREIDES, AND NAIADES.

The worship of water-deities is common to most primitive nations. The

streams, springs, and fountains of a country bear the same relation to it

which the blood, coursing through the numberless arteries of a human

being, bears to the body; both represent the living, moving,

life-awakening element, without which existence would be impossible.

Hence we find among most nations a deep feeling of attachment to the

streams and waters of their native land, the remembrance of which, when

absent in foreign climes, is always treasured with peculiar fondness.

Thus among the early Greeks, each tribe came to regard the rivers and

springs of its individual state as beneficent powers, which brought

blessing and prosperity to the country. It is probable also that the

charm which ever accompanies the sound of running water exercised its

power over their imagination. They heard with delight the gentle whisper

of the fountain, lulling the senses with its low, rippling tones; the

soft purling of the brook as it rushes over the pebbles, or the mighty

voice of the waterfall as it dashes on in its headlong course; and the

beings which they pictured to themselves as presiding over all these

charming sights and sounds of nature, corresponded, in their graceful

appearance, with the scenes with which they were associated.

OCEANIDES.

The Oceanides, or Ocean Nymphs, were the

daughters of Oceanus and Tethys, and, like most sea divinities, were

endowed with the gift of prophecy.

They are personifications of those delicate vapour-like [167]exhalations,

which, in warm climates, are emitted from the surface of the sea, more

especially at sunset, and are impelled forwards by the evening breeze.

They are accordingly represented as misty, shadowy beings, with graceful

swaying forms, and robed in pale blue, gauze-like fabrics.

THE NEREIDES.

The Nereides were the daughters of Nereus and

Doris, and were nymphs of the Mediterranean Sea.

They are similar in appearance to the Oceanides, but their beauty is

of a less shadowy order, and is more like that of mortals. They wear a

flowing, pale green robe; their liquid eyes resemble, in their clear

depths, the lucid waters of the sea they inhabit; their hair floats

carelessly over their shoulders, and assumes the greenish tint of the

water itself, which, far from deteriorating from their beauty, greatly

adds to its effect. The Nereides either accompany the chariot of the

mighty ruler of the sea, or follow in his train.

We are told by the poets that the lonely mariner watches the Nereides

with silent awe and wondering delight, as they rise from their

grotto-palaces in the deep, and dance, in joyful groups, over the

sleeping waves. Some, with arms entwined, follow with their movements the

melodies which seem to hover over the sea, whilst others scatter liquid

gems around, these being emblematical of the phosphorescent light, so

frequently observed at night by the traveller in southern waters.

The best known of the Nereides were Thetis, the wife of Peleus,

Amphitrite, the spouse of Poseidon, and Galatea, the beloved of Acis.

THE NAIADES.

The Naiades were the nymphs of fresh-water

springs, lakes, brooks, rivers, &c.

As the trees, plants, and flowers owed their nourishment to their

genial, fostering care, these divinities were [168]regarded by the Greeks

as special benefactors to mankind. Like all the nymphs, they possessed

the gift of prophecy, for which reason many of the springs and fountains

over which they presided were believed to inspire mortals who drank of

their waters with the power of foretelling future events. The Naiades are

intimately connected in idea with those flowers which are called after

them Nymphæ, or water-lilies, whose broad, green leaves and yellow cups

float upon the surface of the water, as though proudly conscious of their

own grace and beauty.

We often hear of the Naiades forming alliances with mortals, and also

of their being wooed by the sylvan deities of the woods and dales.

DRYADES, OR TREE NYMPHS.

The tree nymphs partook of the distinguishing characteristics of the

particular tree to whose life they were wedded, and were known

collectively by the name of the Dryades.

The Hamadryades, or oak nymphs, represent in

their peculiar individuality the quiet, self-reliant power which appears

to belong essentially to the grand and lordly king of the forest.

The Birch Nymph is a melancholy maiden with

floating hair, resembling the branches of the pale and fragile-looking

tree which she inhabits.

The Beech Nymph is strong and sturdy, full of

life and joyousness, and appears to give promise of faithful love and

undisturbed repose, whilst her rosy cheeks, deep brown eyes, and graceful

form bespeak health, vigour, and vitality.

The nymph of the Linden Tree is represented as

a little coy maiden, whose short silver-gray dress reaches a little below

the knee, and displays to advantage her delicately formed limbs. The

sweet face, which is partly averted, reveals a pair of large blue eyes,

which appear to look at you with wondering surprise and shy mistrust;

[169]her pale, golden hair is bound by the

faintest streak of rose-coloured ribbon.

The tree nymph, being wedded to the life of the tree she inhabited,

ceased to exist when it was either felled, or so injured as to wither

away and die.

NYMPHS OF THE VALLEYS AND MOUNTAINS.

NAPÆÆ AND OREADES.

The Napææ were the kind and gentle nymphs of the valleys and glens who

appear in the train of Artemis. They are represented as lovely maidens

with short tunics, which, reaching only to the knee, do not impede their

swift and graceful movements in the exercise of the chase. Their pale

brown tresses are fastened in a knot at the back of the head, whence a

few stray curls escape over their shoulders. The Napææ are shy as the

fawns, and quite as frolicsome.

The Oreades, or mountain nymphs, who are the

principal and constant companions of Artemis, are tall, graceful maidens,

attired as huntresses. They are ardent followers of the chase, and spare

neither the gentle deer nor the timid hare, nor indeed any animal they

meet with in their rapid course. Wherever their wild hunt goes the shy

Napææ are represented as hiding behind the leaves, whilst their

favourites, the fawns, kneel tremblingly beside them, looking up

beseechingly for protection from the wild huntresses; and even the bold

Satyrs dart away at their approach, and seek safety in flight.

There is a myth connected with one of these mountain nymphs, the

unfortunate Echo. She became enamoured of a beautiful youth named

Narcissus, son of the river-god Cephissus, who, however, failed to return

her love, which so grieved her that she gradually pined away, becoming a

mere shadow of her former self, till, at length, nothing remained of her

except her voice, which henceforth gave back, with unerring fidelity,

every sound that was uttered in the hills and dales. Narcissus himself

[170]also met with an unhappy fate, for

Aphrodite punished him by causing him to fall in love with his own image,

which he beheld in a neighbouring fountain, whereupon, consumed with

unrequited love, he wasted away, and was changed into the flower which

bears his name.

The Limoniades, or meadow nymphs, resemble the

Naiades, and are usually represented dancing hand in hand in a

circle.

The Hyades, who in appearance are somewhat

similar to the Oceanides, are cloudy divinities, and, from the fact of

their being invariably accompanied by rain, are represented as

incessantly weeping.

The Meliades were the nymphs who presided over

fruit-trees.

Before concluding this subject, attention should be drawn to the fact

that, in more modern times, this beautiful idea of animating all nature

in detail reappears under the various local traditions extant in

different countries. Thus do the Oceanides and Nereides live again in the

mermaids, whose existence is still believed in by mariners, whilst the

flower and meadow nymphs assume the shape of those tiny elves and

fairies, who were formerly believed to hold their midnight revels in

every wood and on every common; indeed, even at the present day, the

Irish peasantry, especially in the west, firmly believe in the existence

of the fairies, or “good people,” as they are called.

THE WINDS.

According to the oldest accounts, Æolus was a king of the Æolian

Islands, to whom Zeus gave the command of the winds, which he kept shut

up in a deep cave, and which he freed at his pleasure, or at the command

of the gods.

In later times the above belief underwent a change, and the winds came

to be regarded as distinct divinities, whose aspect accorded with the

respective winds with which they were identified. They were depicted as

[171]winged youths in full vigour in the act of

flying through the air.

The principal winds were: Boreas (the north wind), Eurus (the east

wind), Zephyrus (the west wind), and Notus (the south wind), who were

said to be the children of Eos and Astræus.

There are no myths of interest connected with these divinities.

Zephyrus was united to Chloris (Flora), the goddess of flowers. Of Boreas

it is related that while flying over the river Ilissus, he beheld on the

banks Oreithyia, the charming daughter of Erechtheus, king of Athens,

whom he carried off to his native Thrace, and there made her his bride.

Boreas and Oreithyia were the parents of Zetes and Calais, afterwards

famous in the expedition of the Argonauts.

There was an altar erected at Athens in honour of Boreas, in

commemoration of his having destroyed the Persian fleet sent to attack

the Greeks.

On the Acropolis at Athens there was a celebrated octagonal temple,

built by Pericles, which was dedicated to the winds, and on its sides

were their various representations. The ruins of this temple are still to

be seen.

PAN (Faunus).

Pan was the god of fertility, and the special patron of shepherds and

huntsmen; he presided over all rural occupations, was chief of the

Satyrs, and head of all rural divinities.

According to the common belief, he was the son of Hermes and a wood

nymph, and came into the world with horns sprouting from his forehead, a

goat’s beard and a crooked nose, pointed ears, and the tail and feet of a

goat, and presented altogether so repulsive [172]an appearance that, at

the sight of him, his mother fled in dismay.

Hermes, however, took up his curious little offspring, wrapt him in a

hare skin, and carried him in his arms to Olympus. The grotesque form and

merry antics of the little stranger made him a great favourite with all

the immortals, especially Dionysus; and they bestowed upon him the name

of Pan (all), because he had delighted them all.

His favourite haunts were grottoes, and his delight was to wander in

uncontrolled freedom over rocks and mountains, following his various

pursuits, ever cheerful, and usually very noisy. He was a great lover of

music, singing, dancing, and all pursuits which enhance the pleasures of

life; and hence, in spite of his repulsive appearance, we see him

surrounded with nymphs of the forests and dales, who love to dance round

him to the cheerful music of his pipe, the syrinx. The myth concerning

the origin of Pan’s pipe is as follows:—Pan became enamoured of a

beautiful nymph, called Syrinx, who, appalled at his terrible appearance,

fled from the pertinacious attentions of her unwelcome suitor. He pursued

her to the banks of the river Ladon, when, seeing his near approach, and

feeling escape impossible, she called on the gods for assistance, who, in

answer to her prayer, transformed her into a reed, just as Pan was about

to seize her. Whilst the love-sick Pan was sighing and lamenting his

unfortunate fate, the winds gently swayed the reeds, and produced a

murmuring sound as of one complaining. Charmed with the soothing tones,

he endeavoured to reproduce them himself, and after cutting seven of the

reeds of unequal length, he joined them together, and succeeded in

producing the pipe, which he called the syrinx, in memory of his lost

love.

Pan was regarded by shepherds as their most valiant protector, who

defended their flocks from the attacks of wolves. The shepherds of these

early times, having no penfolds, were in the habit of gathering together

their flocks in mountain caves, to protect them against the [173]inclemency of

the weather, and also to secure them at night against the attacks of wild

animals; these caves, therefore, which were very numerous in the mountain

districts of Arcadia, Bœotia, &c., were all consecrated to

Pan.

As it is customary in all tropical climates to repose during the heat

of the day, Pan is represented as greatly enjoying his afternoon sleep in

the cool shelter of a tree or cave, and also as being highly displeased

at any sound which disturbed his slumbers, for which reason the shepherds

were always particularly careful to keep unbroken silence during these

hours, whilst they themselves indulged in a quiet siesta.

Pan was equally beloved by huntsmen, being himself a great lover of

the woods, which afforded to his cheerful and active disposition full

scope, and in which he loved to range at will. He was regarded as the

patron of the chase, and the rural sportsmen, returning from an

unsuccessful day’s sport, beat, in token of their displeasure, the wooden

image of Pan, which always occupied a prominent place in their

dwellings.

All sudden and unaccountable sounds which startle travellers in lonely

spots, were attributed to Pan, who possessed a frightful and most

discordant voice; hence the term panic terror, to indicate sudden

fear. The Athenians ascribed their victory at Marathon to the alarm which

he created among the Persians by his terrible voice.

Pan was gifted with the power of prophecy, which he is said to have

imparted to Apollo, and he possessed a well-known and very ancient oracle

in Arcadia, in which state he was more especially worshipped.

The artists of later times have somewhat toned down the original very

unattractive conception of Pan, as above described, and merely represent

him as a young man, hardened by the exposure to all weathers which a

rural life involves, and bearing in his hand the shepherd’s crook and

syrinx—these being his usual attributes—whilst small horns

project from his forehead. He is either undraped, or wears merely the

light cloak called the chlamys.

The usual offerings to Pan were milk and honey in [174]shepherds’

bowls. Cows, lambs, and rams were also sacrificed to him.

After the introduction of Pan into the worship of Dionysus, we hear of

a number of little Pans (Panisci), who are sometimes confounded with the

Satyrs.

FAUNUS.

The Romans had an old Italian divinity called Faunus, who, as the god

of shepherds, was identified with the Greek Pan, and represented in a

similar manner.

Faunus is frequently called Inuus or the fertilizer, and Lupercus or

the one who wards off wolves. Like Pan, he possessed the gift of

prophecy, and was the presiding spirit of the woods and fields; he also

shared with his Greek prototype the faculty of alarming travellers in

solitary places. Bad dreams and evil apparitions were attributed to

Faunus, and he was believed to enter houses stealthily at night for this

purpose.

Fauna was the wife of Faunus, and participated in his functions.

THE SATYRS.

The Satyrs were a race of woodland spirits, who evidently personified

the free, wild, and untrammelled life of the forest. Their appearance was

both grotesque and repulsive; they had flat broad noses, pointed ears,

and little horns sprouting from their foreheads, a rough shaggy skin, and

small goat’s tails. They led a life of pleasure and self-indulgence,

followed the chase, revelled in every description of wild music and

dancing, were terrible wine-bibbers, and addicted to the deep slumbers

which follow heavy potations. They were no less dreaded by mortals than

by the gentle woodland nymphs, who always avoided their coarse rough

sports.

The Satyrs were conspicuous figures in the train of Dionysus, and, as

we have seen, Silenus their chief was tutor to the wine god. The older

Satyrs were called Silens, and are represented in antique sculpture, as

more nearly approaching the human form.

[175]

In addition to the ordinary Satyrs, artists delighted in depicting

little Satyrs, young imps, frolicking about the woods in a marvellous

variety of droll attitudes. These little fellows greatly resemble their

friends and companions, the Panisci.

In rural districts it was customary for the shepherds and peasants who

attended the festivals of Dionysus, to dress themselves in the skins of

goats and other animals, and, under this disguise, they permitted

themselves all kinds of playful tricks and excesses, to which

circumstance the conception of the Satyrs is by some authorities

attributed.

In Rome the old Italian wood-divinities, the FAUNS, who had goats’

feet and all other characteristics of the Satyrs greatly exaggerated,

were identified with them.

PRIAPUS.

Priapus, the son of Dionysus and Aphrodite, was regarded as the god of

fruitfulness, the protector of flocks, sheep, goats, bees, the fruit of

the vine, and all garden produce.

His statues, which were set up in gardens and vineyards, acted not

only as objects of worship, but also as scarecrows, the appearance of

this god being especially repulsive and unsightly. These statues were

formed of wood or stone, and from the hips downwards were merely rude

columns. They represent him as having a red and very ugly face; he bears

in his hand a pruning knife, and his head is crowned with a wreath of

vine and laurel. He usually carries fruit in his garments or a cornucopia

in his hand, always, however, retaining his singularly revolting aspect.

It is said that Hera, wishing [176]to punish Aphrodite, sent her this

misshapen and unsightly son, and that when he was born, his mother was so

horrified at the sight of him, that she ordered him to be exposed on the

mountains, where he was found by some shepherds, who, taking pity on him,

saved his life.

This divinity was chiefly worshipped at Lampsacus, his birthplace.

Asses were sacrificed to him, and he received the first-fruits of the

fields and gardens, with a libation of milk and honey.

The worship of Priapus was introduced into Rome at the same time as

that of Aphrodite, and was identified with a native Italian divinity

named Mutunus.

ASCLEPIAS (Æsculapius).

Asclepias, the god of the healing art, was the son of Apollo and the

nymph Coronis. He was educated by the noble Centaur Chiron, who

instructed him in all knowledge, but more especially in that of the

properties of herbs. Asclepias searched out the hidden powers of plants,

and discovered cures for the various diseases which afflict the human

body. He brought his art to such perfection, that he not only succeeded

in warding off death, but also restored the dead to life. It was

popularly believed that he was materially assisted in his wonderful cures

by the blood of the Medusa, given to him by Pallas-Athene.

It is well to observe that the shrines of this divinity, which were

usually built in healthy places, on hills outside the town, or near wells

which were believed to have healing powers, offered at the same time

means of cure for the sick and suffering, thus combining religious with

sanitary influences. It was the custom for the sufferer to sleep in the

temple, when, if he had been earnest in his devotions, Asclepias appeared

to him in a dream, and revealed the means to be employed for the cure of

his malady. On the walls of these temples were hung tablets, inscribed by

the different pilgrims with the particulars of their maladies, the

remedies practised, and the cures [177]worked by the

god:—a custom undoubtedly productive of most beneficial

results.

Groves, temples, and altars were dedicated to Asclepias in many parts

of Greece, but Epidaurus, the chief seat of his worship,—where,

indeed, it is said to have originated,—contained his principal

temple, which served at the same time as a hospital.

The statue of Asclepias in the temple at Epidaurus was formed of ivory

and gold, and represented him as an old man with a full beard, leaning on

a staff round which a serpent is climbing. The serpent was the

distinguishing symbol of this divinity, partly because these reptiles

were greatly used by the ancients in the cure of diseases, and partly

also because all the prudence and wisdom of the serpent were deemed

indispensable to the judicious physician.

His usual attributes are a staff, a bowl, a bunch of herbs, a

pineapple, a dog, and a serpent.

His children inherited, for the most part, the distinguished talents

of their father. Two of his sons, Machaon and Podalirius, accompanied

Agamemnon to the Trojan war, in which expedition they became renowned,

not only as military heroes, but also as skilful physicians.

Their sisters, HYGEIA (health), and PANACEA

(all-healing), had temples dedicated to them, and received divine

honours. The function of Hygeia was to maintain the health of the

community, which great blessing was supposed to be brought by her as a

direct and beneficent gift from the gods.

ÆSCULAPIUS.

The worship of Æsculapius was introduced into Rome from Epidaurus,

whence the statue of the god of healing [178]was brought at the time

of a great pestilence. Grateful for their deliverance from this plague,

the Romans erected a temple in his honour, on an island near the mouth of

the Tiber.

ROMAN DIVINITIES.

JANUS.

From the earliest ages Janus was regarded by the Romans with the

utmost affection and veneration, as a divinity who ranked only second to

Jupiter himself, and through whom all prayers and petitions were

transmitted to the other gods.

He was believed to preside over the beginnings of all things, hence it

was he who inaugurated the years, months, and seasons, and in course of

time came to be considered as specially protecting the beginnings of all

human enterprises. The great importance which the Romans attached to an

auspicious commencement, as contributing to the ultimate success of an

enterprise, accounts for the high estimation in which Janus was held as

the god of beginnings.

This divinity would appear to have been the ancient sun-god of the

Italian tribes, in which capacity he opens and closes the gates of heaven

every morning and evening. Hence he was regarded as the door-keeper of

heaven, and also as the presiding deity over all gates, entrances,

&c., on earth.

The fact of his being the god of city gates, which were called Jani

after him, is ascribed, however, to the following myth:—After the

abduction of their women by the Romans, the Sabines, in revenge, invaded

the Roman state, and were already about to enter the gates of the city,

when suddenly a hot sulphur spring, which was believed to have been sent

by Janus for their special preservation, gushed forth from the earth, and

arrested the progress of the enemy.

[179]

In his character as guardian of gates and doors, he was also regarded

as a protecting deity of the home, for which reason little shrines were

erected to him over the doors of houses, which contained an image of the

god, having two faces.

Janus possessed no temples in the ordinary acceptation of the word,

but all the gates of cities were dedicated to him. Close to the Forum of

Rome stood the so-called temple of Janus, which, however, was merely an

arched passage, closed by massive gates. This temple was open only in

time of war, as it was supposed that the god had then taken his departure

with the Roman army, over whose welfare he personally presided. It is

worthy of notice, as an evidence of the many wars in which the Romans

were engaged, that the gates of this sanctuary were only closed three

times during 700 years.

As the god who ushers in the new year, the first month was called

after him, and on the 1st of January his most important festival was

celebrated, on which occasion all entrances of public and private

buildings were decorated with laurel branches and garlands of

flowers.

His sacrifices, consisting of cakes, wine, and barley, were offered to

him at the beginning of every month; and before sacrificing to the other

gods his name was always invoked, and a libation poured out to him.

Janus is usually represented with two faces; in his special function

as door-keeper of heaven he stands erect, bearing a key in one hand, and

a rod or sceptre in the other.

It is supposed that Janus was the most ancient king of Italy, who,

during his life, governed his subjects with such wisdom and moderation

that, in gratitude for the benefits conferred upon them, his people

deified him after death and placed him in the foremost rank among their

divinities. We have already seen in the history of Cronus that Saturn,

who was identified with the Greek Cronus (god of time), was the friend

and colleague of Janus. Anxious to prove his gratitude to his benefactor,

Cronus endowed him with the knowledge of past and future [180]events, which

enabled him to adopt the wisest measures for the welfare of his subjects,

and it is on this account that Janus is represented with two faces

looking in opposite directions, the one to the past, the other to the

future.

FLORA.

Flora was the goddess of flowers, and was regarded as a beneficent

power, who watched over and protected the early blossoms.

She was held in the highest estimation by the Romans, and a festival,

called the Floralia, was celebrated in her honour from the 28th of April

to the 1st of May. This festival was a season of universal merriment, in

which flowers were used profusely in adorning houses, streets, &c.,

and were worn by young girls in their hair.

Flora, who typified the season of Spring, is generally represented as

a lovely maiden, garlanded with flowers.

ROBIGUS.

In opposition to Flora we find an antagonistic divinity, called

Robigus, a worker of evil, who delighted in the destruction of the tender

herbs by mildew, and whose wrath could only be averted by prayers and

sacrifices, when he was invoked under the title of Averuncus, or the

Avertor.

The festival of Robigus (the Robigalia) was celebrated on the 25th of

April.

POMONA.

Pomona was the goddess of orchards and fruit-trees, who, according to

Ovid, cares not for woods or streams, but loves her gardens and the

boughs that bear the thriving fruit.

Pomona, who typifies Autumn, is represented as a lovely maiden, laden

with branches of fruit-trees.

[181]

VERTUMNUS.

Vertumnus was the god of garden and field produce. He personifies the

change of seasons, and that process of transformation in nature by means

of which the leaf-buds become developed into blossoms, and the blossoms

into fruit.

The change of seasons is symbolized in a myth which represents

Vertumnus as metamorphosing himself into a variety of different forms in

order to gain the affection of Pomona, who so loved her vocation that she

abjured all thoughts of marriage. He first appears to her as a ploughman,

typifying Spring; then as a reaper, to represent Summer; afterwards as a

vine-gatherer, to indicate Autumn; and finally as a gray-haired old

woman, symbolical of the snows of Winter; but it was not until he assumed

his true form, that of a beautiful youth, that he succeeded in his

suit.

Vertumnus is generally represented crowned with wheat-sheaves, and

bearing in his hand a cornucopia.

PALES.

Pales, a very ancient Italian divinity, is represented sometimes as a

male, sometimes as a female power.

As a male divinity he is more particularly the god of shepherds and

flocks.

As a female deity, Pales presides over husbandry and the fruitfulness

of herds. Her festivals, the Palilia, were celebrated on the 21st of

April, the day on which the city of Rome was founded. During this

festival it was customary for shepherds to ignite a mass of straw,

through which they rushed with their flocks, believing that this ordeal

would purify them from sin.

The name Palatine, which originally signified a pastoral colony, is

derived from this divinity. Her offerings were cakes and milk.

[182]

PICUS.

Picus, the son of Saturn and father of Faunus, was a woodland

divinity, gifted with prophetic powers.

An ancient myth relates that Picus was a beautiful youth, united to a

nymph called Canens. The sorceress Circe, infatuated by his beauty,

endeavoured to secure his love, but he rejected her advances, and she, in

revenge, changed him into a woodpecker, under which form he still

retained his powers of prophecy.

Picus is represented as a youth, with a woodpecker perched upon his

head, which bird became henceforth regarded as possessed of the power of

prophecy.

PICUMNUS AND PILUMNUS.

Picumnus and Pilumnus were two household divinities of the Romans, who

were the special presiding deities of new-born infants.

SILVANUS.

Silvanus was a woodland divinity, who, like Faunus, greatly resembled

the Greek Pan. He was the presiding deity of plantations and forests, and

specially protected the boundaries of fields.

Silvanus is represented as a hale old man, carrying a cypress-tree,

for, according to Roman mythology, the transformation of the youth

Cyparissus into the tree which bears his name was attributed to him.

His sacrifices consisted of milk, meat, wine, grapes, wheat-ears, and

pigs.

TERMINUS.

Terminus was the god who presided over all boundaries and

landmarks.

He was originally represented by a simple block of stone, which in

later times became surmounted by a [183]head of this divinity.

Numa Pompilius, the great benefactor of his people, anxious to inculcate

respect for the rights of property, specially enjoined the erection of

these blocks of stone, as a durable monument to mark the line dividing

one property from another. He also caused altars to be raised to

Terminus, and instituted his festival (the Terminalia), which was

celebrated on the 23rd of February.

Upon one occasion, when Tarquin wished to remove the altars of several

deities, in order to build a new temple, it is said that Terminus and

Juventas alone objected to being displaced. This obstinate refusal on

their part was interpreted as a good omen, signifying that the city of

Rome would never lose her boundaries, and would remain ever young and

vigorous.

CONSUS.

Consus was the god of secret counsel.

The Romans believed that when an idea developed itself spontaneously

within the mind of an individual, it was Consus who had prompted the

suggestion. This applied, however, more particularly to plans which

resulted satisfactorily.

An altar was erected to this divinity on the Circus Maximus, which was

kept always covered, except during his festival, the Consualia, which was

celebrated on the 18th of August.

LIBITINA.

Libitina was the goddess who presided over funerals. This divinity was

identified with Venus, possibly because the ancients considered that the

power of love extended even to the realms of death.

Her temple in Rome, which was erected by Servius Tullius, contained

all the requisites for funerals, and these could either be bought or

hired there. A register of all deaths which occurred in the city of Rome

was kept in [184]this temple, and in order to ascertain the

rate of mortality, a piece of money was paid by command of Servius

Tullius, on the demise of each person.

LAVERNA.

Laverna was the presiding goddess of thieves, and of all artifice and

fraud. There was an altar erected to her near the Porta Lavernalis, which

was called after her, and she possessed a sacred grove on the Via

Salavia.

COMUS.

Comus was the presiding genius of banquets, festive scenes, revelry,

and all joyous pleasures and reckless gaiety.

He is represented as a young man crowned with flowers, his face heated

and flushed with wine, leaning against a post in a half-sleepy and

drunken attitude, with a torch falling from his hand.

THE CAMENÆ.

The Camenæ were prophetic nymphs held in high veneration by the

ancient Italians. They were four in number, the best known of whom are

Carmenta and Egeria.

Carmenta was celebrated as being the mother of Evander, who led an

Arcadian colony into Italy, and founded a town on the river Tiber, which

became afterwards incorporated with the city of Rome. Evander is said to

have been the first who introduced Greek art and civilization into Italy,

and also the worship of Greek divinities.

A temple was erected to Carmenta on the Capitoline Hill, and a

festival, called the Carmentalia, was celebrated in her honour on the

11th of January.

Egeria is said to have initiated Numa Pompilius in the forms of

religious worship, which he introduced among his people. She was regarded

as the giver of [185]life, and was therefore invoked by women

before the birth of their children.

The Camenæ are frequently identified by Roman writers with the

Muses.

GENII.

A comforting and assuring belief existed among the Romans, that each

individual was accompanied through life, from the hour of his birth to

that of his death, by a protecting spirit, called his genius, who

prompted him to good and noble deeds, and acted towards him as a guardian

angel, comforting him in sorrow, and guiding him throughout his earthly

career.

In the course of time a second genius was believed to exist, of an

evil nature, who, as the instigator of all wrong-doing, was ever at war

with the beneficent genius; and on the issue of the conflict between

these antagonistic influences, depended the fate of the individual. The

genii were depicted as winged beings, greatly resembling our modern

representations of guardian angels.

Every state, town, or city, (as well as every man), possessed its

special genius. The sacrifices to the genii consisted of wine, cakes, and

incense, which were offered to them on birthdays.

The genius which guided a woman was called, after the queen of heaven,

Juno.

Among the Greeks, beings called Dæmons were regarded as exercising

similar functions to those of the Roman genii. They were believed to be

the spirits of the righteous race which existed in the Golden Age, who

watched over mankind, carrying their prayers to the gods, and the gifts

of the gods to them.

MANES.

LEMURES (LARVÆ) AND LARES.

The Manes were the spirits of the departed, and were of two kinds,

viz., Lemures (or Larvæ) and Lares. [186]

The Lemures were those Manes who haunted their former abodes on earth

as evil spirits, appearing at night under awful forms and hideous shapes,

greatly to the alarm of their friends and relatives. They were so feared

that a festival, called the Lemuralia, was celebrated in order to

propitiate them.

It appears extremely probable that the superstitions with regard to

ghosts, haunted houses, &c., which exist even at the present day, owe

their origin to this very ancient pagan source.

The Lares Familiares were a much more pleasing conception. They were

the spirits of the ancestors of each family, who exercised after death a

protecting power over the well-being and prosperity of the family to

which they had in life belonged. The place of honour beside the hearth

was occupied by the statue of the Lar of the house, who was supposed to

have been the founder of the family. This statue was the object of

profound veneration, and was honoured on all occasions by every member of

the family; a portion of each meal was laid before it, and it was

believed to take an active part in all family affairs and domestic

events, whether of a sad or joyful nature. Before starting on any

expedition the master of the house saluted the statue of the Lar, and, on

his return, a solemn thanksgiving was offered to this, the presiding

deity of his hearth and home, in grateful acknowledgment of his

protection; whereupon the statue was crowned with garlands of flowers,

these being the favourite offerings to the Lares on all occasions of

especial family rejoicing.

The first act of a bride on entering her new abode was to do homage to

the Lar, in the belief that he would exercise over her a protecting

influence and shield her from evil.

In addition to those above enumerated there were also public Lares,

who were guardians of the state, highroads, country, and sea. Their

temples were always open for any pious worshipper to enter, and on their

altars public sacrifices were offered for the welfare of the state or

city. [187]

PENATES.

The Penates were deities selected by each family, and frequently by

its individual members, as a special protector. Various causes led to

this selection. If, for instance, a child were born on the festival of

Vesta, it was thought that that deity would henceforward act as its

special guardian. If a youth possessed great business talents he adopted

Mercury as his tutelary deity; should he, on the other hand, develop a

passion for music, Apollo was selected as his patron god, and so forth.

These became regarded as the special divinities of the household, small

images of them adorned the surroundings of the hearth, and honours

similar to those paid to the Lares were accorded to them.

Just as there were public Lares so there were public Penates, which

were worshipped by the Roman people under the form of two youthful

warriors, who, in later times, were regarded as identical with Castor and

Pollux. They are generally represented on horseback, with conical caps on

their heads, and bearing long spears in their hands.

[188]

PUBLIC WORSHIP OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS

AND ROMANS.

TEMPLES.

In very remote times the Greeks had no shrines or sanctuaries devoted

to public worship, but performed their devotions beneath the vast and

boundless canopy of heaven, in the great temple of nature itself.

Believing that their divinities throned above the clouds, pious

worshippers naturally sought the highest available points, in order to

place themselves in the closest communion possible with their gods; hence

the summits of high mountains were selected for devotional purposes, and

the more exalted the rank and importance of the divinity invoked, the

more elevated was the site selected for his or her worship. But the

inconvenience attending this mode of worship gradually suggested the idea

of erecting edifices which would afford means of shelter from the

inclemency of the weather.

These structures were, in the first instance, of the most simple form,

and without decoration; but when, with the progress of civilization, the

Greeks became a [189]wealthy and powerful people, temples were

built and adorned with the greatest splendour and magnificence, talent,

labour, and wealth being lavished unsparingly on their erection and

decoration; indeed so massively were they constructed, that some of them

have, to a certain extent, withstood the ravages of time. The city of

Athens especially contains numerous remains of these buildings of

antiquity. On the Acropolis we may still behold, among other monuments of

ancient art, the temple of Athene-Polias, and that of Theseus, the latter

of which is the most entire ancient edifice in the world. In the island

of Delos, also, are to be seen the ruins of the temples of Apollo and

Artemis, both of which are in a wonderful state of preservation. These

ruins are most valuable, being sufficiently complete to enable us to

study, by their aid, the plan and character of the original

structure.

Among the Lacedæmonians, however, we find no vestiges of these stately

temples, for they were specially enjoined by a law of Lycurgus to serve

the gods with as little outlay as possible. When the great lawgiver was

asked the reason of this injunction, he replied that the Lacedæmonians,

being a poor nation, might otherwise abstain altogether from the

observance of their religious duties, and wisely added that magnificent

edifices and costly sacrifices were not so pleasing to the gods, as the

true piety and unfeigned devotion of their worshippers.

The most ancient temples known to us served a double purpose: they

were not only consecrated to the service of the gods, but were at the

same time venerable monuments in honour of the dead. Thus, for instance,

the temple of Pallas-Athene, in the tower of the city of Larissa, served

as the sepulchre of Acrisius, and the Acropolis at Athens received the

ashes of Cecrops, founder of the city.

A temple was frequently dedicated to two or more gods, and was always

built after the manner considered most acceptable to the particular

divinities to whom it was consecrated; for just as trees, birds, and

animals of [190]every description were held to be sacred

to certain deities, so almost every god had a form of building peculiar

to himself, which was deemed more acceptable to him than any other. Thus

the Doric style of architecture was sacred to Zeus, Ares, and Heracles;

the Ionic to Apollo, Artemis, and Dionysus; and the Corinthian to

Hestia.

In the porch of the temple stood a vessel of stone or brass,

containing holy water (which had been consecrated by putting into it a

burning torch, taken from the altar), with which all those admitted to

take part in the sacrifices were besprinkled. In the inmost recess of the

sanctuary was the most holy place, into which none but the priests were

suffered to enter.

Temples in the country were usually surrounded with groves of trees.

The solitude of these shady retreats naturally tended to inspire the

worshipper with awe and reverence, added to which the delightful shade

and coolness afforded by tall leafy trees is peculiarly grateful in hot

countries. Indeed so general did this custom of building temples in

groves become, that all places devoted to sacred purposes, even where no

trees existed, were called groves. That this practice must be of very

remote antiquity is proved by the Biblical injunction, having for its

object the separation of the Jews from all idolatrous practices: “Thou

shalt not plant thee a grove of trees near unto the altar of the Lord thy

God.”

STATUES.

The Greeks worshipped their gods without any visible representations

of them until the time of Cecrops. The most ancient of these

representations consisted of square blocks of stone, upon which the name

of the deity intended to be represented was engraved. The first attempts

at sculpture were rude stocks, with a head at one end and a shapeless

trunk at the other, tapering slightly down to the feet, which, however,

were not divided, the limbs being in no way defined. But the artists of

later times devoted all their genius to the [191]successful production

of the highest ideals of their gods, some of which are preserved to this

day, and are regarded as examples of purest art.

On a pedestal in the centre of the edifice stood the statue of the

divinity to whom the temple was dedicated, surrounded by images of other

gods, all of which were fenced off by rails.

ALTARS.

The altar in a Greek temple, which stood in the centre of the building

and in front of the statue of the presiding deity, was generally of a

circular form, and constructed of stone. It was customary to engrave upon

it the name or distinguishing symbol of the divinity to whom it was

dedicated; and it was held so sacred that if any malefactor fled to it

his life was safe from his pursuers, and it was considered one of the

greatest acts of sacrilege to force him from this asylum.

The most ancient altars were adorned with horns, which in former times

were emblems of power and dignity, as wealth, and consequently

importance, consisted among most primitive nations in flocks and

herds.

In addition to those erected in places of public worship, altars were

frequently raised in groves, on highways, or in the market-places of

cities.

The gods of the lower world had no altars whatever, ditches or

trenches being dug for the reception of the blood of the sacrifices

offered to them.

PRIESTS.

In ancient times the priests were recognized as a special social

caste, and were distinguished not only by their sacerdotal vestments, but

also by their piety, wisdom, and blameless life. They were the chosen

mediators between gods and men, and offered prayers and sacrifices in the

name of the people, whom they also instructed as to what vows, gifts, and

offerings would be most acceptable to the gods.

[192]

Every deity had a different order of priests consecrated to his

worship, and in every place a high-priest was appointed, whose duty it

was to superintend the rest of his order, and also to carry out the more

sacred rites and religious observances.

Priests and priestesses were permitted to marry, but not a second

time; some, however, voluntarily adopted a life of celibacy.

SACRIFICES.

There is no doubt that a feeling of gratitude to the gods for their

protecting care, and the abundance with which they were believed to bless

mankind, has induced men of all nations and in all countries to feel a

desire to sacrifice to their divinities some portion of the gifts so

generously lavished upon them.

Among the Greeks, sacrifices were of various kinds. They consisted of

free-will offerings, propitiatory offerings, &c.

Free-will offerings were grateful acknowledgments for benefits

received, and usually consisted of the first-fruits of the field, or the

finest of the flocks and herds, which were required to be without spot or

blemish.

Propitiatory offerings were brought with the object of

appeasing the anger of the gods.

In addition to those above enumerated, sacrifices were made, either

with a view of obtaining success in an enterprise about to be undertaken,

or in fulfilment of a vow, or at the command of an oracle.

Every sacrifice was accompanied by salt and also by a libation, which

usually consisted of wine, the cup being always filled to the brim,

indicating that the offering was made without stint. When sacrificing to

the infernal gods the cup containing the libation was filled with

blood.

The animals offered to the Olympian divinities were white, whilst

those to the gods of the lower world were black. When a man offered a

special sacrifice for himself or his family it partook of the nature of

his [193]occupation; thus a shepherd brought a

sheep, a vine-grower his grapes, and so forth. But in the case of public

sacrifices, the supposed individuality of the deity was always consulted.

For instance, to Demeter a sow was offered, because that animal is apt to

root up the seed-corn; to Dionysus a goat, on account of its being

destructive to vineyards, &c.

The value of offerings depended greatly upon the position of the

individual; it being regarded as a contempt of the gods for a rich man to

bring a sordid offering, whilst from a poor man the smallest oblation was

considered acceptable.

Hecatombs consisted of a hundred animals, and were offered by entire

communities, or by wealthy individuals who either desired, or had

obtained some special favour from the gods.

When a sacrifice was to be offered, a fire was kindled on the altar,

into which wine and frankincense were poured, in order to increase the

flame. In very ancient times, the victim was laid upon the altar and

burned whole; but after the time of Prometheus portions only of the

shoulders, thighs, entrails, &c., were sacrificed, the remainder

becoming the perquisites of the priests.

The officiating priests wore a crown composed of the leaves of the

tree sacred to the deity they invoked. Thus when sacrificing to Apollo

the crowns were of laurel; when to Heracles, of poplar. This practice of

wearing crowns was, at a later period, adopted by the general public at

banquets and other festivities.

On occasions of special solemnity the horns of the victim were

overlaid with gold, and the altars decked with flowers and sacred

herbs.

The mode of conducting the sacrifices was as follows:—All things

being prepared, a salt cake, the sacrificial knife, and the crowns, were

placed in a small basket, and carried to the sanctuary by a young maiden,

whereupon the victim was conducted into the temple, frequently to the

accompaniment of music. If a small animal, it was driven loose to the

altar; if a large one, it was led by a [194]long trailing rope, in

order to indicate that it was not an unwilling sacrifice.

When all were assembled, the priest, after walking in solemn state

round the altar, besprinkled it with a mixture of meal and holy water,

after which he also besprinkled the assembled worshippers, and exhorted

them to join with him in prayer. The service being ended, the priest

first tasted the libation, and after causing the congregation to do the

like, poured the remainder between the horns of the victim, after which

frankincense was strewn upon the altar, and a portion of the meal and

water poured upon the animal, which was then killed. If by any chance the

victim escaped the stroke, or became in any way restless, it was regarded

as an evil omen; if, on the contrary, it expired without a struggle, it

was considered auspicious.

At the sacrifices to the aërial divinities music was added, whilst

dances were performed round the altar, and sacred hymns sung. These hymns

were generally composed in honour of the gods, and contained an account

of their famous actions, their clemency and beneficence, and the gifts

conferred by them on mankind. In conclusion, the gods were invoked for a

continuance of their favour, and when the service was ended a feast was

held.

ORACLES.

The desire to penetrate the dark veil of futurity, and thereby to

avert, if possible, threatened danger, has animated mankind in all ages

of the world. Prophetic knowledge was sought by the Greeks at the mouth

of oracles, whose predictions were interpreted to the people by priests,

specially appointed for the purpose.

The most famous of these institutions was the oracle of Apollo at

Delphi, which was held in general repute all over the world. People

flocked from far and near to consult this wonderful mouth-piece of the

gods, one month in the year being specially set apart for the

purpose.

[195]

The priestess who delivered the oracles was called the Pythia, after

the serpent Python, which was killed by Apollo. Having first bathed in

the waters of the Castalian spring, she was conducted into the temple by

the priests, and was seated on a sort of three-legged stool or table,

called a tripod, which was placed over the mouth of a cave whence issued

sulphurous vapours. Here she gradually became affected in a remarkable

manner, and fell into an ecstatic condition, in which she uttered wild

and extraordinary phrases, which were held to be the utterance of Apollo

himself; these the priests interpreted to the people, but in most cases

in so ambiguous a manner that the fulfilment of the prediction could not

easily be disputed. During the ceremony, clouds of incense filled the

temple, and hid the priestess from the view of the uninitiated, and at

its conclusion she was reconducted, in a fainting condition, to her

cell.

The following is a striking instance of the ambiguity of oracular

predictions:—Crœsus, the rich king of Lydia, before going to

war with Cyrus, king of Persia, consulted an oracle as to the probable

success of the expedition. The reply he received was, that if he crossed

a certain river he would destroy a great empire. Interpreting the

response as being favourable to his design, Crœsus crossed the

river, and encountered the Persian king, by whom he was entirely

defeated; and his own empire being destroyed, the prediction of the

oracle was said to have been fulfilled.

SOOTHSAYERS (Augurs).

In addition to the manifestation of the will of the gods by means of

oracles, the Greeks also believed that certain men, called soothsayers,

were gifted with the power of foretelling future events from dreams, from

observing the flight of birds, the entrails of sacrificed animals, and

even the direction of the flames and smoke from the altar, &c. [196]

AUGURS.

The Roman soothsayers were called augurs, and played an important part

in the history of the Romans, as no enterprise was ever undertaken

without first consulting them with regard to its ultimate success.

FESTIVALS.

Festivals were instituted as seasons of rest, rejoicing, and

thanksgiving, and also as anniversaries to commemorate events of national

importance. The most ancient festivals were those held after the

ingathering of the harvest or vintage, and were celebrated with

rejoicings and merry-makings, which lasted many days, during which time

the first-fruits of the fields were offered to the gods, accompanied by

prayers and thanksgiving.

The festivals held in cities in honour of special divinities, or in

commemoration of particular events, were conducted with an elaborate

ceremonial. Gorgeous processions, games, chariot races, &c., were

conspicuous features on these occasions, and dramatic performances,

representing particular episodes in the lives of the gods and heroes,

frequently took place.

We subjoin a few of the most interesting of the Greek and Roman

festivals.

GREEK FESTIVALS.

ELEUSINIAN MYSTERIES.

One of the most ancient and important among the festivals observed by

the Greeks was that of the Eleusinian Mysteries, which was celebrated in

honour of Demeter and Persephone. The name was derived from Eleusis, a

town in Attica, where the Mysteries were first introduced by the goddess

herself. They were divided into the [197]Greater and Lesser

Mysteries, and, according to the general account, were held every five

years. The Greater, which were celebrated in honour of Demeter, and

lasted nine days, were held in autumn; the Lesser, dedicated to

Persephone (who at these festivals was affectionately called Cora, or the

maiden), were held in spring.

It is supposed that the secrets taught to the initiated by the

priests—the expounders of the Mysteries—were moral meanings,

elucidated from the myths concerning Demeter and Persephone; but the most

important belief inculcated was the doctrine of the immortality of the

soul. That the lessons taught were of the highest moral character is

universally admitted. “The souls of those who participated in them were

filled with the sweetest hopes both as to this and the future world;” and

it was a common saying among the Athenians: “In the Mysteries no one is

sad.”

The initiation into these solemn rites (which was originally the

exclusive privilege of the Athenians) was accompanied with awe-inspiring

ceremonies; and secrecy was so strictly enjoined that its violation was

punished by death. At the conclusion of the initiation great rejoicings

took place, chariot-races, wrestling matches, &c., were held, and

solemn sacrifices offered.

The initiation into the Lesser Mysteries served as a preparation for

the Greater.

THESMOPHORIA.

The Thesmophoria was another festival held in honour of Demeter, in

her character as presiding over marriage and social institutions

resulting from the spread of agriculture.

This festival was celebrated exclusively by women.

DIONYSIA.

A joyous spring festival was held in honour of Dionysus, in the month

of March, and lasted several days.

[198]

This festival, which was called the Greater Dionysia, was celebrated

with particular splendour at Athens, when strangers flocked from all

parts of the world to take part in the ceremonies. The city was gaily

decorated, the houses were garlanded with ivy-leaves, crowds perambulated

the streets, everything wore its holiday garb, and wine was freely

indulged in.

In the processions which took place during these festivities, the

statue of Dionysus was carried, and men and women, crowned with ivy and

bearing the thyrsus, were dressed in every description of grotesque

costume, and played on drums, pipes, flutes, cymbals, &c. Some

representing Silenus rode on asses, others wearing fawn-skins appeared as

Pan or the Satyrs, and the whole multitude sang pæans in honour of the

wine-god. Public shows, games, and sports took place, and the entire city

was full of revelry.

What lent additional interest to these festivals was the custom of

introducing new comedies and tragedies to the public, representations of

which were given, and prizes awarded to those which elicited the greatest

admiration.

The Lesser Dionysia were vintage festivals, celebrated in rural

districts in the month of November, and were characterized by drinking,

feasting, and joviality of all kinds.

In connection with some of the festivals in honour of Dionysus were

certain mystic observances, into which only women, called Menades or

Bacchantes, were initiated. Clad in fawn-skins, they assembled by night

on the mountain sides, [199]some carrying blazing torches, others

thyrsi, and all animated with religious enthusiasm and frenzy. They

shouted, clapped their hands, danced wildly, and worked themselves up to

such a pitch of excitement and fury that in their mad frenzy they tore in

pieces the animal brought as a sacrifice to Dionysus.

Under the name of Bacchanalia, these mystic rites were introduced into

Rome, where men also were allowed to participate in them; but they were

attended with such frightful excesses that the state authorities at

length interfered and prohibited them.

PANATHENÆA.

The Panathenæa was a famous festival celebrated in Athens in honour of

Athene-Polias, the guardian of the state. There were two festivals of

this name, the Lesser and the Greater Panathenæa. The former was held

annually, and the latter, which lasted several days, was celebrated every

fourth year.

For the Greater Panathenæa a garment, embroidered with gold, called

the Peplus, was specially woven by Athenian maidens, on which was

represented the victory gained by Athene over the Giants. This garment

was suspended to the mast of a ship which stood outside the city; and

during the festival, which was characterized by a grand procession, the

ship (with the Peplus on its mast) was impelled forward by means of

invisible machinery, and formed the most conspicuous feature of the

pageant. The whole population, bearing olive branches in their hands,

took part in the procession; and amidst music and rejoicings this

imposing pageant wended its way to the temple of Athene-Polias, where the

Peplus was deposited on the statue of the goddess.

At this festival, Homer’s poems were declaimed aloud, and poets also

introduced their own works to the public. Musical contests, foot and

horse races, and wrestling matches were held, and dances were performed

by boys in armour.

[200]

Men who had deserved well of their country were presented at the

festival with a crown of gold, and the name of the person so

distinguished was announced publicly by a herald.

The victors in the races and athletic games received, as a prize, a

vase of oil, supposed to have been extracted from the fruit of the sacred

olive-tree of Athene.

DAPHNEPHORIA.

The Daphnephoria was celebrated at Thebes in honour of Apollo every

ninth year.

The distinguishing feature of this festival was a procession to the

temple of Apollo, in which a young priest (the Daphnephorus) of noble

descent, splendidly attired and wearing a crown of gold, was preceded by

a youth, carrying an emblematical representation of the sun, moon, stars,

and days of the year, and followed by beautiful maidens bearing laurel

branches, and singing hymns in honour of the god.

ROMAN FESTIVALS.

SATURNALIA.

The Saturnalia, a national festival held in December in honour of

Saturn, was celebrated after the ingathering of the harvest, and lasted

several days.

It was a time of universal rejoicing, cessation from labour, and

merry-making. School children had holidays, friends sent presents to each

other, the law-courts were closed, and no business was transacted.

Crowds of people from the surrounding country flocked to Rome for this

festival attired in every variety of masquerade dress; practical jokes

were given and received with the utmost good humour, shouts of exultation

filled [201]the air, all classes abandoned themselves

to enjoyment, and unrestrained hilarity reigned supreme. Social

distinctions were for a time suspended, or even reversed; and so heartily

was the spirit of this festival entered into, that masters waited upon

their slaves at banquets which they provided for them; the slaves being

dressed upon these occasions in the garments of their masters.

There appears little doubt that the modern Carnival is a survival of

the ancient Saturnalia.

CEREALIA.

This festival was celebrated in honour of Ceres. It was solemnized

exclusively by women, who, dressed in white garments, wandered about with

torches in their hands, to represent the search of the goddess for her

daughter Proserpine.

During this festival, games were celebrated in the Circus Maximus, to

which none were admitted unless clothed in white.

VESTALIA.

The Vestalia was a festival held in honour of Vesta on the 9th of

June, and was celebrated exclusively by women, who walked barefooted in

procession to the temple of the goddess.

The priestesses of Vesta, called Vestales or Vestal Virgins, played a

conspicuous part in these festivals. They were six in number, and were

chosen—between the ages of six and ten—from the noblest

families in Rome. Their term of office was thirty years. During the first

ten years, they were initiated in their religious duties, during the

second ten they performed them, and during the third they instructed

novices. Their chief duty was to watch and feed the ever-burning flame on

the altar of Vesta, the extinction of which was regarded as a national

calamity of ominous import.

[202]

Great honours and privileges were accorded to them; the best seats

were reserved for their use at all public spectacles, and even the

consuls and prætors made way for them to pass. If they met a criminal on

his way to execution they had the power to pardon him, provided it could

be proved that the meeting was accidental.

The Vestales were vowed to chastity, a violation of which was visited

by the frightful punishment of being buried alive.

[203]

PART II.—LEGENDS.

CADMUS.

The following is the legendary account of the founding of

Thebes:—

After the abduction of his daughter Europa by Zeus, Agenor, king of

Phœnicia, unable to reconcile himself to her loss, despatched his

son Cadmus in search of her, desiring him not to return without his

sister.

For many years Cadmus pursued his search through various countries,

but without success. Not daring to return home without her, he consulted

the oracle of Apollo at Delphi; and the reply was that he must desist

from his task, and take upon himself a new duty, i.e. that of

founding a city, the site of which would be indicated to him by a heifer

which had never borne the yoke, and which would lie down on the spot

whereon the city was to be built.

Scarcely had Cadmus left the sacred fane, when he observed a heifer

who bore no marks of servitude on her neck, walking slowly in front of

him. He followed the animal for a considerable distance, until at length,

on the site where Thebes afterwards stood, she looked towards heaven and,

gently lowing, lay down in the long grass. Grateful for this mark of

divine favour, Cadmus resolved to offer up the animal as a sacrifice, and

accordingly sent his followers to fetch water for the libation from a

neighbouring spring. This spring, which was sacred to Ares, was situated

in a wood, and guarded by a fierce dragon, who, at the approach of the

retainers of Cadmus, suddenly pounced upon them and killed them.

After waiting some time for the return of his servants [204]Cadmus grew

impatient, and hastily arming himself with his lance and spear, set out

to seek them. On reaching the spot, the mangled remains of his

unfortunate followers met his view, and near them he beheld the frightful

monster, dripping with the blood of his victims. Seizing a huge rock, the

hero hurled it with all his might upon the dragon; but protected by his

tough black skin and steely scales as by a coat of mail, he remained

unhurt. Cadmus now tried his lance, and with more success, for it pierced

the side of the beast, who, furious with pain, sprang at his adversary,

when Cadmus, leaping aside, succeeded in fixing the point of his spear

within his jaws, which final stroke put an end to the encounter.

While Cadmus stood surveying his vanquished foe Pallas-Athene appeared

to him, and commanded him to sow the teeth of the dead dragon in the

ground. He obeyed; and out of the furrows there arose a band of armed

men, who at once commenced to fight with each other, until all except

five were killed. These last surviving warriors made peace with each

other, and it was with their assistance that Cadmus now built the famous

city of Thebes. In later times the noblest Theban families proudly

claimed their descent from these mighty earth-born warriors.

Ares was furious with rage when he discovered that Cadmus had slain

his dragon, and would have killed him had not Zeus interfered, and

induced him to mitigate his punishment to that of servitude for the term

of eight years. At the end of that time the god of war became reconciled

to Cadmus, and, in token of his forgiveness, bestowed upon him the hand

of his daughter Harmonia in marriage. Their nuptials were almost as

celebrated as those of Peleus and Thetis. All the gods honoured them with

their presence, and offered rich gifts and congratulations. Cadmus

himself presented his lovely bride with a splendid necklace fashioned by

Hephæstus, which, however, after the death of Harmonia, always proved

fatal to its possessor.

The children of Cadmus and Harmonia were one son, [205]Polydorus, and

four daughters, Autonoe, Ino, Semele, and Agave.

For many years the founder of Thebes reigned happily, but at length a

conspiracy was formed against him, and he was deprived of his throne by

his grandson Pentheus. Accompanied by his faithful wife Harmonia, he

retired into Illyria, and after death they were both changed by Zeus into

serpents, and transferred to Elysium.

PERSEUS.

Perseus, one of the most renowned of the legendary heroes of

antiquity, was the son of Zeus and Danaë, daughter of Acrisius, king of

Argos.

An oracle having foretold to Acrisius that a son of Danaë would be the

cause of his death, he imprisoned her in a tower of brass in order to

keep her secluded from the world. Zeus, however, descended through the

roof of the tower in the form of a shower of gold, and the lovely Danaë

became his bride.

For four years Acrisius remained in ignorance of this union, but one

evening as he chanced to pass by the brazen chamber, he heard the cry of

a young child proceeding from within, which led to the discovery of his

daughter’s marriage with Zeus. Enraged at finding all his precautions

unavailing, Acrisius commanded the mother and child to be placed in a

chest and thrown into the sea.

But it was not the will of Zeus that they should perish. He directed

Poseidon to calm the troubled waters, and caused the chest to float

safely to the island of Seriphus. Dictys, brother of Polydectes, king of

the island, was fishing on the sea-shore when he saw the chest stranded

on the beach; and pitying the helpless condition of its unhappy

occupants, he conducted them to the palace of the king, where they were

treated with the greatest kindness.

Polydectes eventually became united to Danaë, and [206]bestowed upon

Perseus an education befitting a hero. When he saw his stepson develop

into a noble and manly youth he endeavoured to instil into his mind a

desire to signalize himself by the achievement of some great and heroic

deed, and after mature deliberation it was decided that the slaying of

the Gorgon, Medusa, would bring him the greatest renown.

For the successful accomplishment of his object it was necessary for

him to be provided with a pair of winged sandals, a magic wallet, and the

helmet of Aïdes, which rendered the wearer invisible, all of which were

in the keeping of the Nymphs, the place of whose abode was known only to

the Grææ. Perseus started on his expedition, and, guided by Hermes and

Pallas-Athene, arrived, after a long journey, in the far-off region, on

the borders of Oceanus, where dwelt the Grææ, daughters of Phorcys and

Ceto. He at once applied to them for the necessary information, and on

their refusing to grant it he deprived them of their single eye and

tooth, which he only restored to them when they gave him full directions

with regard to his route. He then proceeded to the abode of the Nymphs,

from whom he obtained the objects indispensable for his purpose.

Equipped with the magic helmet and wallet, and armed with a sickle,

the gift of Hermes, he attached to his feet the winged sandals, and flew

to the abode of the Gorgons, whom he found fast asleep. Now as Perseus

had been warned by his celestial guides that whoever looked upon these

weird sisters would be transformed into stone, he stood with averted face

before the sleepers, and caught on his bright metal shield their triple

image. Then, guided by Pallas-Athene, he cut off the head of the Medusa,

which he placed in his wallet. No sooner had he done so than from the

headless trunk there sprang forth the winged steed Pegasus, and Chrysaor,

the father of the winged giant Geryon. He now hastened to elude the

pursuit of the two surviving sisters, who, aroused from their slumbers,

eagerly rushed to avenge the death of their sister.

[207]

His invisible helmet and winged sandals here stood him in good stead;

for the former concealed him from the view of the Gorgons, whilst the

latter bore him swiftly over land and sea, far beyond the reach of

pursuit. In passing over the burning plains of Libya the drops of blood

from the head of the Medusa oozed through the wallet, and falling on the

hot sands below produced a brood of many-coloured snakes, which spread

all over the country.

Perseus continued his flight until he reached the kingdom of Atlas, of

whom he begged rest and shelter. But as this king possessed a valuable

orchard, in which every tree bore golden fruit, he was fearful lest the

slayer of the Medusa might destroy the dragon which guarded it, and then

rob him of his treasures. He therefore refused to grant the hospitality

which the hero demanded, whereupon Perseus, exasperated at the churlish

repulse, produced from his wallet the head of the Medusa, and holding it

towards the king, transformed him into a stony mountain. Beard and hair

erected themselves into forests; shoulders, hands, and limbs became huge

rocks, and the head grew up into a craggy peak which reached into the

clouds.

Perseus then resumed his travels. His winged sandals bore him over

deserts and mountains, until he arrived at Æthiopia, the kingdom of King

Cepheus. Here he found the country inundated with disastrous floods,

towns and villages destroyed, and everywhere signs of desolation and

ruin. On a projecting cliff close to the shore he beheld a lovely maiden

chained to a rock. This was Andromeda, the king’s daughter. Her mother

Cassiopea, having boasted that her beauty surpassed that of the Nereides,

the angry sea-nymphs appealed to Poseidon to avenge their wrongs,

whereupon the sea-god devastated the country with a terrible inundation,

which brought with it a huge monster who devoured all that came in his

way.

In their distress the unfortunate Æthiopians applied to the oracle of

Jupiter-Ammon, in the Libyan desert, [208]and obtained the

response, that only by the sacrifice of the king’s daughter to the

monster could the country and people be saved.

Cepheus, who was tenderly attached to his child, at first refused to

listen to this dreadful proposal; but overcome at length by the prayers

and solicitations of his unhappy subjects, the heart-broken father gave

up his child for the welfare of his country. Andromeda was accordingly

chained to a rock on the sea-shore to serve as a prey to the monster,

whilst her unhappy parents bewailed her sad fate on the beach below.

On being informed of the meaning of this tragic scene, Perseus

proposed to Cepheus to slay the dragon, on condition that the lovely

victim should become his bride. Overjoyed at the prospect of Andromeda’s

release, the king gladly acceded to the stipulation, and Perseus hastened

to the rock, to breathe words of hope and comfort to the trembling

maiden. Then assuming once more the helmet of Aïdes, he mounted into the

air, and awaited the approach of the monster.

Presently the sea opened, and the shark’s head of the gigantic beast

of the deep raised itself above the waves. Lashing his tail furiously

from side to side, he leaped forward to seize his victim; but the gallant

hero, watching his opportunity, suddenly darted down, and producing the

head of the Medusa from his wallet, held it before the eyes of the

dragon, whose hideous body became gradually transformed into a huge black

rock, which remained for ever a silent witness of the miraculous

deliverance of Andromeda. Perseus then led the maiden to her now happy

parents, who, anxious to evince their gratitude to her deliverer ordered

immediate preparations to be made for the nuptial feast. But the young

hero was not to bear away his lovely bride uncontested; for in the midst

of the banquet, Phineus, the king’s brother, to whom Andromeda had

previously been betrothed, returned to claim his bride. Followed by a

band of armed warriors he forced his way into the hall, and a desperate

encounter took place between the rivals, [209]which might have

terminated fatally for Perseus, had he not suddenly bethought himself of

the Medusa’s head. Calling to his friends to avert their faces, he drew

it from his wallet, and held it before Phineus and his formidable

body-guard, whereupon they all stiffened into stone.

Perseus now took leave of the Æthiopian king, and, accompanied by his

beautiful bride, returned to Seriphus, where a joyful meeting took place

between Danaë and her son. He then sent a messenger to his grandfather,

informing him that he intended returning to Argos; but Acrisius, fearing

the fulfilment of the oracular prediction, fled for protection to his

friend Teutemias, king of Larissa. Anxious to induce the aged monarch to

return to Argos, Perseus followed him thither. But here a strange

fatality occurred. Whilst taking part in some funereal games, celebrated

in honour of the king’s father, Perseus, by an unfortunate throw of the

discus, accidentally struck his grandfather, and thereby was the innocent

cause of his death.

After celebrating the funereal rites of Acrisius with due solemnity,

Perseus returned to Argos; but feeling loath to occupy the throne of one

whose death he had caused, he exchanged kingdoms with Megapenthes, king

of Tiryns, and in course of time founded the cities of Mycenæ and

Midea.

The head of the Medusa he presented to his divine patroness,

Pallas-Athene, who placed it in the centre of her shield.

Many great heroes were descended from Perseus and Andromeda, foremost

among whom was Heracles, whose mother, Alcmene, was their

granddaughter.

Heroic honours were paid to Perseus, not only [210]throughout Argos, but

also at Athens and in the island of Seriphus.

ION.

Ion was the son of Crëusa (the beauteous daughter of Erechtheus, king

of Athens) and the sun-god Phœbus-Apollo, to whom she was united

without the knowledge of her father.

Fearing the anger of Erechtheus, Crëusa placed her new-born babe in a

little wicker basket, and hanging some golden charms round his neck,

invoked for him the protection of the gods, and concealed him in a lonely

cave. Apollo, pitying his deserted child, sent Hermes to convey him to

Delphi, where he deposited his charge on the steps of the temple. Next

morning the Delphic priestess discovered the infant, and was so charmed

by his engaging appearance that she adopted him as her own son. The young

child was carefully tended and reared by his kind foster-mother, and was

brought up in the service of the temple, where he was intrusted with some

of the minor duties of the holy edifice.

And now to return to Crëusa. During a war with the Eubœans, in

which the latter were signally defeated, Xuthus, son of Æolus, greatly

distinguished himself on the side of the Athenians, and as a reward for

his valuable services, the hand of Crëusa, the king’s daughter, was

bestowed upon him in marriage. Their union, however, was not blest with

children, and as this was a source of great grief to both of them, they

repaired to Delphi in order to consult the oracle. The response was, that

Xuthus should regard the first person who met him on leaving the

sanctuary as his son. Now it happened that Ion, the young guardian of the

temple, was the first to greet his view, and when Xuthus beheld the

beautiful youth, he gladly welcomed him as his son, declaring that the

gods had sent him to be a blessing and comfort to his old age. Crëusa,

however, who concluded that the youth was the offspring of a secret

marriage on the part of her husband, was filled with suspicion and

jealousy; [211]when an old servant, observing her grief,

begged her to be comforted, assuring her that the cause of her distress

should be speedily removed.

When, upon the occasion of the public adoption of his son, Xuthus gave

a grand banquet, the old servant of Crëusa contrived to mix a strong

poison in the wine of the unsuspecting Ion. But the youth—according

to the pious custom of the ancients, of offering a libation to the gods

before partaking of any repast—poured upon the ground a portion of

the wine before putting it to his lips, when suddenly, as if by a

miracle, a dove flew into the banquet-hall, and sipped of the wine of the

libation; whereupon the poor little creature began to quiver in every

limb, and in a few moments expired.

Ion’s suspicions at once fell upon the obsequious servant of Crëusa,

who with such officious attention had filled his cup. He violently seized

the old man, and accused him of his murderous intentions. Unprepared for

this sudden attack he admitted his guilt, but pointed to the wife of

Xuthus as the instigator of the crime. Ion was about to avenge himself

upon Crëusa, when, by means of the divine intervention of Apollo, his

foster-mother, the Delphic priestess appeared on the scene, and explained

the true relationship which existed between Crëusa and Ion. In order to

set all doubts at rest, she produced the charms which she had found round

the neck of the infant, and also the wicker basket in which he had been

conveyed to Delphi.

Mother and son now became reconciled to each other, and Crëusa

revealed to Ion the secret of his divine origin. The priestess of Delphi

foretold that he would become the father of a great nation, called after

him the Ionians, and also that Xuthus and Crëusa would have a son called

Dorus, who would be the progenitor of the Dorian people, both of which

predictions were in due time verified.

DÆDALUS and ICARUS.

Dædalus, a descendant of Erechtheus, was an Athenian architect,

sculptor, and mechanician. He was the first [212]to introduce the art of

sculpture in its higher development, for before his time statues were

merely rude representations, having the limbs altogether undefined.

But great as was his genius, still greater was his vanity, and he

could brook no rival. Now his nephew and pupil, Talus, exhibited great

talent, having invented both the saw and the compass, and Dædalus,

fearing lest he might overshadow his own fame, secretly killed him by

throwing him down from the citadel of Pallas-Athene. The murder being

discovered, Dædalus was summoned before the court of the Areopagus and

condemned to death; but he made his escape to the island of Crete, where

he was received by king Minos in a manner worthy of his great

reputation.

Dædalus constructed for the king the world-renowned labyrinth, which

was an immense building, full of intricate passages, intersecting each

other in such a manner, that even Dædalus himself is said, upon one

occasion, to have nearly lost his way in it; and it was in this building

the king placed the Minotaur, a monster with the head and shoulders of a

bull and the body of a man.

In the course of time the great artist became weary of his long exile,

more especially as the king, under the guise of friendship, kept him

almost a prisoner. He therefore resolved to make his escape, and for this

purpose ingeniously contrived wings for himself and his young son Icarus,

whom he diligently trained how to use them. Having awaited a favourable

opportunity, father and son commenced their flight, and were well on

their way when Icarus, pleased with the novel sensation, forgot

altogether his father’s oft-repeated injunction not to approach too near

the sun. The consequence was that the wax, by means of which his wings

were attached, melted, and he fell into the sea and was drowned. The body

of the unfortunate Icarus was washed up by the tide, and was buried by

the bereaved father on an island which he called after his son,

Icaria.

After this sad event, Dædalus winged his flight to the island of

Sicily, where he met with a kind welcome from [213]king Cocalus, for whom

he constructed several important public works. But no sooner did Minos

receive the intelligence that his great architect had found an asylum

with Cocalus than he sailed over to Sicily with a large army, and sent

messengers to the Sicilian king demanding the surrender of his guest.

Cocalus feigned compliance and invited Minos to his palace, where he was

treacherously put to death in a warm bath. The body of their king was

brought to Agrigent by the Cretans, where it was buried with great pomp,

and over his tomb a temple to Aphrodite was erected.

Dædalus passed the remainder of his life tranquilly in the island of

Sicily, where he occupied himself in the construction of various

beautiful works of art.

THE ARGONAUTS.

Aeson, king of Iolcus, was forced to fly from his dominions, which had

been usurped by his younger brother, Pelias, and with difficulty

succeeded in saving the life of his young son, Jason, who was at that

time only ten years of age. He intrusted him to the care of the Centaur

Chiron, by whom he was carefully trained in company with other noble

youths, who, like himself, afterwards signalized themselves by their

bravery and heroic exploits. For ten years Jason remained in the cave of

the Centaur, by whom he was instructed in all useful and warlike arts.

But as he approached manhood he became filled with an unconquerable

desire to regain his paternal inheritance. He therefore took leave of his

kind friend and preceptor, and set out for Iolcus to demand from his

uncle Pelias the kingdom which he had so unjustly usurped.

In the course of his journey he came to a broad and foaming river, on

the banks of which he perceived an old woman, who implored him to help

her across. At first he hesitated, knowing that even alone he would find

some difficulty in stemming the fierce torrent; but, [214]pitying her

forlorn condition, he raised her in his arms, and succeeded, with a great

effort, in reaching the opposite shore. But as soon as her feet had

touched the earth she became transformed into a beautiful woman, who,

looking kindly at the bewildered youth, informed him that she was the

goddess Hera, and that she would henceforth guide and protect him

throughout his career. She then disappeared, and, full of hope and

courage at this divine manifestation, Jason pursued his journey. He now

perceived that in crossing the river he had lost one of his sandals, but

as it could not be recovered he was obliged to proceed without it.

On his arrival at Iolcus he found his uncle in the market-place,

offering up a public sacrifice to Poseidon. When the king had concluded

his offering, his eye fell upon the distinguished stranger, whose manly

beauty and heroic bearing had already attracted the attention of his

people. Observing that one foot was unshod, he was reminded of an

oracular prediction which foretold to him the loss of his kingdom by a

man wearing only one sandal. He, however, disguised his fears, conversed

kindly with the youth, and drew from him his name and errand. Then

pretending to be highly pleased with his nephew, Pelias entertained him

sumptuously for five days, during which time all was festivity and

rejoicing. On the sixth, Jason appeared before his uncle, and with manly

firmness demanded from him the throne and kingdom which were his by

right. Pelias, dissembling his true feelings, smilingly consented to

grant his request, provided that, in return, Jason would undertake an

expedition for him, which his advanced age prevented him from

accomplishing himself. He informed his nephew that the shade of Phryxus

had appeared to him in his dreams, and entreated him to bring back from

Colchis his mortal remains and the Golden Fleece; and added that if Jason

succeeded in obtaining for him these sacred relics, throne, kingdom, and

sceptre should be his.

[215]

STORY OF THE GOLDEN FLEECE.

Athamas, king of Bœotia, had married Nephele, a cloud-nymph, and

their children were Helle and Phryxus. The restless and wandering nature

of Nephele, however, soon wearied her husband, who, being a mortal, had

little sympathy with his ethereal consort; so he divorced her, and

married the beautiful but wicked Ino (sister of Semele), who hated her

step-children, and even planned their destruction. But the watchful

Nephele contrived to circumvent her cruel designs, and succeeded in

getting the children out of the palace. She then placed them both on the

back of a winged ram, with a fleece of pure gold, which had been given to

her by Hermes; and on this wonderful animal brother and sister rode

through the air over land and sea; but on the way Helle, becoming seized

with giddiness, fell into the sea (called after her the Hellespont) and

was drowned.

Phryxus arrived safely at Colchis, where he was hospitably received by

king Aëtes, who gave him one of his daughters in marriage. In gratitude

to Zeus for the protection accorded him during his flight, Phryxus

sacrificed to him the golden ram, whilst the fleece he presented to

Aëtes, who nailed it up in the Grove of Ares, and dedicated it to the god

of War. An oracle having declared that the life of Aëtes depended on the

safe-keeping of the fleece, he carefully guarded the entrance to the

grove by placing before it an immense dragon, which never slept.

Building and Launch of the Argo.—We will now return to

Jason, who eagerly undertook the perilous expedition proposed to him by

his uncle, who, well aware of the dangers attending such an enterprise,

hoped by this means to rid himself for ever of the unwelcome

intruder.

Jason accordingly began to arrange his plans without delay, and

invited the young heroes whose friendship he [216]had formed whilst under

the care of Chiron, to join him in the perilous expedition. None refused

the invitation, all feeling honoured at being allowed the privilege of

taking part in so noble and heroic an undertaking.

Jason now applied to Argos, one of the cleverest ship-builders of his

time, who, under the guidance of Pallas-Athene, built for him a splendid

fifty-oared galley, which was called the Argo, after the builder. In the

upper deck of the vessel the goddess had imbedded a board from the

speaking oak of the oracle of Zeus at Dodona, which ever retained its

powers of prophecy. The exterior of the ship was ornamented with

magnificent carvings, and the whole vessel was so strongly built that it

defied the power of the winds and waves, and was, nevertheless, so light

that the heroes, when necessary, were able to carry it on their

shoulders. When the vessel was completed, the Argonauts (so called after

their ship) assembled, and their places were distributed by lot.

Jason was appointed commander-in-chief of the expedition, Tiphys acted

as steersman, Lynceus as pilot. In the bow of the vessel sat the renowned

hero Heracles; in the stern, Peleus (father of Achilles) and Telamon (the

father of Ajax the Great). In the inner space were Castor and Pollux,

Neleus (the father of Nestor), Admetus (the husband of Alcestes),

Meleager (the slayer of the Calydonian boar), Orpheus (the renowned

singer), Menoctius (the father of Patroclus), Theseus (afterwards king of

Athens) and his friend Pirithöus (the son of Ixion), Hylas (the adopted

son of Heracles), Euphemus (the son of Poseidon), Oileus (father of Ajax

the Lesser), Zetes and Calais (the winged sons of Boreas), Idmon the Seer

(the son of Apollo), Mopsus (the Thessalian prophet), &c. &c.

Before their departure Jason offered a solemn sacrifice to Poseidon

and all the other sea-deities; he also invoked the protection of Zeus and

the Fates, and then, Mopsus having taken the auguries, and found them

auspicious, the heroes stepped on board. And now a favourable breeze

having sprung up, they take their allotted places, [217]the anchor is weighed,

and the ship glides like a bird out of the harbour into the waters of the

great sea.

Arrival at Lemnos.—The Argo, with her brave crew of fifty

heroes, was soon out of sight, and the sea-breeze only wafted to the

shore a faint echo of the sweet strains of Orpheus.

For a time all went smoothly, but the vessel was soon driven, by

stress of weather, to take refuge in a harbour in the island of Lemnos.

This island was inhabited by women only, who, the year before, in a fit

of mad jealousy, had killed all the male population of the island, with

the exception of the father of their queen, Hypsipyle. As the protection

of their island now devolved upon themselves they were always on the

look-out for danger. When, therefore, they sighted the Argo from afar

they armed themselves and rushed to the shore, determined to repel any

invasion of their territory.

On arriving in port the Argonauts, astonished at beholding an armed

crowd of women, despatched a herald in one of their boats, bearing the

staff of peace and friendship. Hypsipyle, the queen, proposed that food

and presents should be sent to the strangers, in order to prevent their

landing; but her old nurse, who stood beside her, suggested that this

would be a good opportunity to provide themselves with noble husbands,

who would act as their defenders, and thus put an end to their constant

fears. Hypsipyle listened attentively to the advice of her nurse, and

after some consultation, decided to invite the strangers into the city.

Robed in his purple mantle, the gift of Pallas-Athene, Jason, accompanied

by some of his companions, stepped on shore, where he was met by a

deputation consisting of the most beautiful of the Lemnian women, and, as

commander of the expedition, was invited into the palace of the

queen.

When he appeared before Hypsipyle, she was so struck with his godlike

and heroic presence that she presented him with her father’s sceptre, and

invited him to seat himself on the throne beside her. Jason thereupon

[218]took up his residence in the royal castle,

whilst his companions scattered themselves through the town, spending

their time in feasting and pleasure. Heracles, with a few chosen

comrades, alone remained on board.

From day to day their departure was delayed, and the Argonauts, in

their new life of dissipation, had almost forgotten the object of the

expedition, when Heracles suddenly appeared amongst them, and at last

recalled them to a sense of their duty.

Giants and Doliones.—The Argonauts now pursued their

voyage, till contrary winds drove them towards an island, inhabited by

the Doliones, whose king Cyzicus received them with great kindness and

hospitality. The Doliones were descendants of Poseidon, who protected

them against the frequent attacks of their fierce and formidable

neighbours, the earth-born Giants—monsters with six arms.

Whilst his companions were attending a banquet given by king Cyzicus,

Heracles, who, as usual, had remained behind to guard the ship, observed

that these Giants were busy blocking up the harbour with huge rocks. He

at once realized the danger, and, attacking them with his arrows,

succeeded in considerably thinning their numbers; then, assisted by the

heroes, who at length came to his aid, he effectually destroyed the

remainder.

The Argo now steered out of the harbour and set sail; but in

consequence of a severe storm which arose at night, was driven back once

more to the shores of the kindly Doliones. Unfortunately, however, owing

to the darkness of the night, the inhabitants failed to recognize their

former guests, and, mistaking them for enemies, commenced to attack them.

Those who had so recently parted as friends were now engaged in mortal

combat, and in the battle which ensued, Jason himself pierced to the

heart his friend king Cyzicus; whereupon the Doliones, being deprived of

their leader, fled to their city and closed the gates. When morning

dawned, and both sides perceived their error, they were filled with [219]the

deepest sorrow and remorse; and for three days the heroes remained with

the Doliones, celebrating the funereal rites of the slain, with every

demonstration of mourning and solemnity.

Heracles left behind.—The Argonauts once more set sail,

and after a stormy voyage arrived at Mysia, where they were hospitably

received by the inhabitants, who spread before them plentiful banquets

and sumptuously regaled them.

While his friends were feasting, Heracles, who had declined to join

them, went into the forest to seek a fir-tree which he required for an

oar, and was missed by his adopted son Hylas, who set out to seek him.

When the youth arrived at a spring, in the most secluded part of the

forest, the nymph of the fountain was so struck by his beauty that she

drew him down beneath the waters, and he was seen no more. Polyphemus,

one of the heroes, who happened to be also in the forest, heard his cry

for help, and on meeting Heracles informed him of the circumstance. They

at once set out in search of the missing youth, no traces of whom were to

be found, and whilst they were engaged looking for him, the Argo set sail

and left them behind.

The ship had proceeded some distance before the absence of Heracles

was observed. Some of the heroes were in favour of returning for him,

others wished to proceed on their journey, when, in the midst of the

dispute, the sea-god Glaucus arose from the waves, and informed them that

it was the will of Zeus that Heracles, having another mission to perform,

should remain behind. The Argonauts continued their voyage without their

companions; Heracles returned to Argos, whilst Polyphemus remained with

the Mysians, where he founded a city and became its king.

Contest with Amycus.—Next morning the Argo touched at the

country of the Bebrycians, whose king Amycus was a famous pugilist, and

permitted no strangers to leave his shores without matching their [220]strength with his. When the heroes,

therefore, demanded permission to land, they were informed that they

could only do so provided that one of their number should engage in a

boxing-match with the king. Pollux, who was the best pugilist in Greece,

was selected as their champion, and a contest took place, which, after a

tremendous struggle, proved fatal to Amycus, who had hitherto been

victorious in all similar encounters.

Phineus and the Harpies.—They now proceeded towards

Bithynia, where reigned the blind old prophet-king Phineus, son of

Agenor. Phineus had been punished by the gods with premature old age and

blindness for having abused the gift of prophecy. He was also tormented

by the Harpies, who swooped down upon his food, which they either

devoured or so defiled as to render it unfit to be eaten. This poor old

man, trembling with the weakness of age, and faint with hunger, appeared

before the Argonauts, and implored their assistance against his fiendish

tormentors, whereupon Zetes and Calais, the winged sons of Boreas,

recognizing in him the husband of their sister Cleopatra, affectionately

embraced him, and promised to rescue him from his painful position.

The heroes prepared a banquet on the sea-shore, to which they invited

Phineus; but no sooner had he taken his place, than the Harpies appeared

and devoured all the viands. Zetes and Calais now rose up into the air,

drove the Harpies away, and were pursuing them with drawn swords, when

Iris, the swift-footed messenger of the gods, appeared, and desired them

to desist from their work of vengeance, promising that Phineus should be

no longer molested.

Freed at length from his tormentors the old man sat down and enjoyed a

plentiful repast with his kind friends the Argonauts, who now informed

him of the object of their voyage. In gratitude for his deliverance

Phineus gave them much useful information concerning their journey, and

not only warned them of the manifold [221]dangers awaiting them,

but also instructed them how they might be overcome.

Passage of the Symplegades.—After a fortnight’s sojourn

in Bithynia the Argonauts once more set sail, but had not proceeded far

on their course, when they heard a fearful and tremendous crash. This was

caused by the meeting of two great rocky islands, called the Symplegades,

which floated about in the sea, and constantly met and separated.

Before leaving Bithynia, the blind old seer, Phineus, had informed

them that they would be compelled to pass between these terrible rocks,

and he instructed them how to do so with safety. As they now approached

the scene of danger they remembered his advice, and acted upon it.

Typhus, the steersman, stood at the helm, whilst Euphemus held in his

hand a dove ready to be let loose; for Phineus had told them that if the

dove ventured to fly through, they might safely follow. Euphemus now

despatched the bird, which passed swiftly through the islands, yet not

without losing some of the feathers of her tail, so speedily did they

reunite. Seizing the moment when the rocks once more separated, the

Argonauts worked at their oars with all their might, and achieved the

perilous passage in safety.

After the miraculous passage of the Argo, the Symplegades became

permanently united, and attached to the bottom of the sea.

The Stymphalides.—The Argo pursued her course along the

southern coast of the Pontus, and arrived at the island of Aretias, which

was inhabited by birds, who, as they flew through the air, discharged

from their wings feathers sharp as arrows.

As the ship was gliding along, Oileus was wounded by one of these

birds, whereupon the Argonauts held a council, and by the advice of

Amphidamas, an experienced hero, all put on their helmets, and held up

their glittering shields, uttering, at the same time, such fearful cries

that [222]the birds flew away in terror, and the

Argonauts were enabled to land with safety on the island.

Here they found four shipwrecked youths, who proved to be the sons of

Phryxus, and were greeted by Jason as his cousins. On ascertaining the

object of the expedition they volunteered to accompany the Argo, and to

show the heroes the way to Colchis. They also informed them that the

Golden Fleece was guarded by a fearful dragon, that king Aëtes was

extremely cruel, and, as the son of Apollo, was possessed of superhuman

strength.

Arrival at Colchis.—Taking with them the four new-comers

they journeyed on, and soon came in sight of the snow-capped peaks of the

Caucasus, when, towards evening, the loud flapping of wings was heard

overhead. It was the giant eagle of Prometheus on his way to torture the

noble and long-suffering Titan, whose fearful groans soon afterwards fell

upon their ears. That night they reached their journey’s end, and

anchored in the smooth waters of the river Phases. On the left bank of

this river they beheld Ceuta, the capital of Colchis; and on their right

a wide field, and the sacred grove of Ares, where the Golden Fleece,

suspended from a magnificent oak-tree, was glittering in the sun. Jason

now filled a golden cup with wine, and offered a libation to

mother-earth, the gods of the country, and the shades of those of the

heroes who had died on the voyage.

Next morning a council was held, in which it was decided, that before

resorting to forcible measures kind and conciliatory overtures should

first be made to king Aëtes in order to induce him to resign the Golden

Fleece. It was arranged that Jason, with a few chosen companions, should

proceed to the royal castle, leaving the remainder of the crew to guard

the Argo. Accompanied, therefore, by Telamon and Augeas, and the four

sons of Phryxus, he set out for the palace.

When they arrived in sight of the castle they were struck by the

vastness and massiveness of the building, at the entrance to which

sparkling fountains played in [223]the midst of luxuriant and park-like

gardens. Here the king’s daughters, Chalciope and Medea, who were walking

in the grounds of the palace, met them. The former, to her great joy,

recognized in the youths who accompanied the hero her own long-lost sons,

whom she had mourned as dead, whilst the young and lovely Medea was

struck with the noble and manly form of Jason.

The news of the return of the sons of Phryxus soon spread through the

palace, and brought Aëtes himself to the scene, whereupon the strangers

were presented to him, and were invited to a banquet which the king

ordered to be prepared in their honour. All the most beautiful ladies of

the court were present at this entertainment; but in the eyes of Jason

none could compare with the king’s daughter, the young and lovely

Medea.

When the banquet was ended, Jason related to the king his various

adventures, and also the object of his expedition, with the circumstances

which had led to his undertaking it. Aëtes listened, in silent

indignation, to this recital, and then burst out into a torrent of

invectives against the Argonauts and his grand-children, declaring that

the Fleece was his rightful property, and that on no consideration would

he consent to relinquish it. Jason, however, with mild and persuasive

words, contrived so far to conciliate him, that he was induced to promise

that if the heroes could succeed in demonstrating their divine origin by

the performance of some task requiring superhuman power, the Fleece

should be theirs.

The task proposed by Aëtes to Jason was that he should yoke the two

brazen-footed, fire-breathing oxen of the king (which had been made for

him by Hephæstus) to his ponderous iron plough. Having done this he must

till with them the stony field of Ares, and then sow in the furrows the

poisonous teeth of a dragon, from which armed men would arise. These he

must destroy to a man, or he himself would perish at their hands.

When Jason heard what was expected of him, his heart for a moment sank

within him; but he determined, nevertheless, not to flinch from his task,

but to trust to the [224]assistance of the gods, and to his own

courage and energy.

Jason ploughs the Field of Ares.—Accompanied by his two

friends, Telamon and Augeas, and also by Argus, the son of Chalciope,

Jason returned to the vessel for the purpose of holding a consultation as

to the best means of accomplishing these perilous feats.

Argus explained to Jason all the difficulties of the superhuman task

which lay before him, and pronounced it as his opinion that the only

means by which success was possible was to enlist the assistance of the

Princess Medea, who was a priestess of Hecate, and a great enchantress.

His suggestion meeting with approval, he returned to the palace, and by

the aid of his mother an interview was arranged between Jason and Medea,

which took place, at an early hour next morning, in the temple of

Hecate.

A confession of mutual attachment took place, and Medea, trembling for

her lover’s safety, presented him with a magic salve, which possessed the

property of rendering any person anointed with it invulnerable for the

space of one day against fire and steel, and invincible against any

adversary however powerful. With this salve she instructed him to anoint

his spear and shield on the day of his great undertaking. She further

added that when, after having ploughed the field and sown the teeth,

armed men should arise from the furrows, he must on no account lose

heart, but remember to throw among them a huge rock, over the possession

of which they would fight among themselves, and their attention being

thus diverted he would find it an easy task to destroy them. Overwhelmed

with gratitude, Jason thanked her, in the most earnest manner, for her

wise counsel and timely aid; at the same time he offered her his hand,

and promised her he would not return to Greece without taking her with

him as his wife.

Next morning Aëtes, in all the pomp of state, surrounded by his family

and the members of his court, [225]repaired to a spot whence a full view of

the approaching spectacle could be obtained. Soon Jason appeared in the

field of Ares, looking as noble and majestic as the god of war himself.

In a distant part of the field the brazen yokes and the massive plough

met his view, but as yet the dread animals themselves were nowhere to be

seen. He was about to go in quest of them, when they suddenly rushed out

from a subterranean cave, breathing flames of fire, and enveloped in a

thick smoke.

The friends of Jason trembled; but the undaunted hero, relying on the

magic powers with which he was imbued by Medea, seized the oxen, one

after the other, by the horns, and forced them to the yoke. Near the

plough was a helmet full of dragon’s teeth, which he sowed as he ploughed

the field, whilst with sharp pricks from his lance he compelled the

monstrous creatures to draw the plough over the stony ground, which was

thus speedily tilled.

While Jason was engaged sowing the dragon’s teeth in the deep furrows

of the field, he kept a cautious look-out lest the germinating giant

brood might grow too quickly for him, and as soon as the four acres of

land had been tilled he unyoked the oxen, and succeeded in frightening

them so effectually with his weapons, that they rushed back in terror to

their subterranean stables. Meanwhile armed men had sprung up out of the

furrows, and the whole field now bristled with lances; but Jason,

remembering the instructions of Medea, seized an immense rock and hurled

it into the midst of these earth-born warriors, who immediately began to

attack each other. Jason then rushed furiously upon them, and after a

terrible struggle not one of the giants remained alive.

Furious at seeing his murderous schemes thus defeated, Aëtes not only

perfidiously refused to give Jason the Fleece which he had so bravely

earned, but, in his anger, determined to destroy all the Argonauts, and

to burn their vessel.

Jason secures the Golden Fleece.—Becoming aware of the

treacherous designs of her father, Medea at [226]once took measures to

baffle them. In the darkness of night she went on board the Argo, and

warned the heroes of their approaching danger. She then advised Jason to

accompany her without loss of time to the sacred grove, in order to

possess himself of the long-coveted treasure. They set out together, and

Medea, followed by Jason, led the way, and advanced boldly into the

grove. The tall oak-tree was soon discovered, from the topmost boughs of

which hung the beautiful Golden Fleece. At the foot of this tree, keeping

his ever-wakeful watch, lay the dreadful, sleepless dragon, who at sight

of them bounded forward, opening his huge jaws.

Medea now called into play her magic powers, and quietly approaching

the monster, threw over him a few drops of a potion, which soon took

effect, and sent him into a deep sleep; whereupon Jason, seizing the

opportunity, climbed the tree and secured the Fleece. Their perilous task

being now accomplished, Jason and Medea quitted the grove, and hastened

on board the Argo, which immediately put to sea.

Murder of Absyrtus.—Meanwhile Aëtes, having discovered

the loss of his daughter and the Golden Fleece, despatched a large fleet,

under the command of his son Absyrtus, in pursuit of the fugitives. After

some days’ sail they arrived at an island at the mouth of the river

Ister, where they found the Argo at anchor, and surrounded her with their

numerous ships. They then despatched a herald on board of her, demanding

the surrender of Medea and the Fleece.

Medea now consulted Jason, and, with his consent, carried out the

following stratagem. She sent a message to her brother Absyrtus, to the

effect that she had been carried off against her will, and promised that

if he would meet her, in the darkness of night, in the temple of Artemis,

she would assist him in regaining possession of the Golden Fleece.

Relying on the good faith of his sister, Absyrtus fell into the snare,

and duly appeared at the appointed trysting-place; and whilst Medea kept

her [227]brother engaged in conversation, Jason

rushed forward and slew him. Then, according to a preconcerted signal, he

held aloft a lighted torch, whereupon the Argonauts attacked the

Colchians, put them to flight, and entirely defeated them.

The Argonauts now returned to their ship, when the prophetic board

from the Dodonean oak thus addressed them: “The cruel murder of Absyrtus

was witnessed by the Erinyes, and you will not escape the wrath of Zeus

until the goddess Circe has purified you from your crime. Let Castor and

Pollux pray to the gods that you may be enabled to find the abode of the

sorceress.” In obedience to the voice, the twin-brothers invoked divine

assistance, and the heroes set out in search of the isle of Circe.

They arrive at the Island of Circe.—The good ship Argo

sped on her way, and, after passing safely through the foaming waters of

the river Eridanus, at length arrived in the harbour of the island of

Circe, where she cast anchor.

Commanding his companions to remain on board, Jason landed with Medea,

and conducted her to the palace of the sorceress. The goddess of charms

and magic arts received them kindly, and invited them to be seated; but

instead of doing so they assumed a supplicating attitude, and humbly

besought her protection. They then informed her of the dreadful crime

which they had committed, and implored her to purify them from it. This

Circe promised to do. She forthwith commanded her attendant Naiads to

kindle the fire on the altar, and to prepare everything necessary for the

performance of the mystic rites, after which a dog was sacrificed, and

the sacred cakes were burned. Having thus duly purified the criminals,

she severely reprimanded them for the horrible murder of which they had

been guilty; whereupon Medea, with veiled head, and weeping bitterly, was

reconducted by Jason to the Argo.

Further Adventures of the Argonauts.—Having left the

island of Circe they were wafted by gentle [228]zephyrs towards the

abode of the Sirens, whose enticing strains soon fell upon their ears.

The Argonauts, powerfully affected by the melody, were making ready to

land, when Orpheus perceived the danger, and, to the accompaniment of his

magic lyre, commenced one of his enchanting songs, which so completely

absorbed his listeners that they passed the island in safety; but not

before Butes, one of their number, lured by the seductive music of the

Sirens, had sprung from the vessel into the waves below. Aphrodite,

however, in pity for his youth, landed him gently on the island of

Libibaon before the Sirens could reach him, and there he remained for

many years.

And now the Argonauts approached new dangers, for on one side of them

seethed and foamed the whirlpool of Charybdis, whilst on the other

towered the mighty rock whence the monster Scylla swooped down upon

unfortunate mariners; but here the goddess Hera came to their assistance,

and sent to them the sea-nymph Thetis, who guided them safely through

these dangerous straits.

The Argo next arrived at the island of the Phæaces, where they were

hospitably entertained by King Alcinous and his queen Arete. But the

banquet prepared for them by their kind host was unexpectedly interrupted

by the appearance of a large army of Colchians, sent by Aëtes to demand

the restoration of his daughter.

Medea threw herself at the feet of the queen, and implored her to save

her from the anger of her father, and Arete, in her kindness of heart,

promised her her protection. Next morning, in an assembly of the people

at which the Colchians were invited to be present, the latter were

informed that as Medea was the lawful wife of Jason they could not

consent to deliver her up; whereupon the Colchians, seeing that the

resolution of the king was not to be shaken, and fearing to face the

anger of Aëtes should they return to Colchis without her, sought

permission of Alcinous to settle in his kingdom, which request was

accorded them.

[229]

After these events the Argonauts once more set sail, and steered for

Iolcus; but, in the course of a terrible and fearful night, a mighty

storm arose, and in the morning they found themselves stranded on the

treacherous quicksands of Syrtes, on the shores of Libya. Here all was a

waste and barren desert, untenanted by any living creature, save the

venomous snakes which had sprung from the blood of the Medusa when borne

by Perseus over these arid plains.

They had already passed several days in this abode of desolation,

beneath the rays of the scorching sun, and had abandoned themselves to

the deepest despair, when the Libyan queen, who was a prophetess of

divine origin, appeared to Jason, and informed him that a sea-horse would

be sent by the gods to act as his guide.

Scarcely had she departed when a gigantic hippocamp was seen in the

distance, making its way towards the Argo. Jason now related to his

companions the particulars of his interview with the Libyan prophetess,

and after some deliberation it was decided to carry the Argo on their

shoulders, and to follow wherever the sea-horse should lead them. They

then commenced a long and weary journey through the desert, and at last,

after twelve days of severe toil and terrible suffering, the welcome

sight of the sea greeted their view. In gratitude for having been saved

from their manifold dangers they offered up sacrifices to the gods, and

launched their ship once more into the deep waters of the ocean.

Arrival at Crete.—With heartfelt joy and gladness they

proceeded on their homeward voyage, and after some days arrived at the

island of Crete, where they purposed to furnish themselves with fresh

provisions and water. Their landing, however, was opposed by a terrible

giant who guarded the island against all intruders. This giant, whose

name was Talus, was the last of the Brazen race, and being formed of

brass, was invulnerable, except in his right ankle, where there was a

sinew of flesh and a vein of blood. As he saw the Argo [230]nearing the

coast, he hurled huge rocks at her, which would inevitably have sunk the

vessel had not the crew beat a hasty retreat. Although sadly in want of

food and water, the Argonauts had decided to proceed on their journey

rather than face so powerful an opponent, when Medea came forward and

assured them that if they would trust to her she would destroy the

giant.

Enveloped in the folds of a rich purple mantle, she stepped on deck,

and after invoking the aid of the Fates, uttered a magic incantation,

which had the effect of throwing Talus into a deep sleep. He stretched

himself at full length upon the ground, and in doing so grazed his

vulnerable ankle against the point of a sharp rock, whereupon a mighty

stream of blood gushed forth from the wound. Awakened by the pain, he

tried to rise, but in vain, and with a mighty groan of anguish the giant

fell dead, and his enormous body rolled heavily over into the deep. The

heroes being now able to land, provisioned their vessel, after which they

resumed their homeward voyage.

Arrival at Iolcus.—After a terrible night of storm and

darkness they passed the island of Ægina, and at length reached in safety

the port of Iolcus, where the recital of their numerous adventures and

hair-breadth escapes was listened to with wondering admiration by their

fellow-countrymen.

The Argo was consecrated to Poseidon, and was carefully preserved for

many generations till no vestige of it remained, when it was placed in

the heavens as a brilliant constellation.

On his arrival at Iolcus, Jason conducted his beautiful bride to the

palace of his uncle Pelias, taking with him the Golden Fleece, for the

sake of which this perilous expedition had been undertaken. But the old

king, who had never expected that Jason would return alive, basely

refused to fulfil his part of the compact, and declined to abdicate the

throne.

[231]

Indignant at the wrongs of her husband, Medea avenged them in a most

shocking manner. She made friends with the daughters of the king, and

feigned great interest in all their concerns. Having gained their

confidence, she informed them, that among her numerous magic arts, she

possessed the power of restoring to the aged all the vigour and strength

of youth, and in order to give them a convincing proof of the truth of

her assertion, she cut up an old ram, which she boiled in a cauldron,

whereupon, after uttering various mystic incantations, there came forth

from the vessel a beautiful young lamb. She then assured them, that in a

similar manner they could restore to their old father his former youthful

frame and vigour. The fond and credulous daughters of Pelias lent an all

too willing ear to the wicked sorceress, and thus the old king perished

at the hands of his innocent children.

Death of Jason.—Medea and Jason now fled to Corinth,

where at length they found, for a time, peace and tranquillity, their

happiness being completed by the birth of three children.

As time passed on, however, and Medea began to lose the beauty which

had won the love of her husband, he grew weary of her, and became

attracted by the youthful charms of Glauce, the beautiful daughter of

Creon, king of Corinth. Jason had obtained her father’s consent to their

union, and the wedding-day was already fixed, before he disclosed to

Medea the treachery which he meditated against her. He used all his

persuasive powers in order to induce her to consent to his union with

Glauce, assuring her that his affection had in no way diminished, but

that for the sake of the advantages which would thereby accrue to their

children, he had decided on forming this alliance with the royal house.

Though justly enraged at his deceitful conduct, Medea dissembled her

wrath, and, feigning to be satisfied with this explanation, sent, as a

wedding-gift to her rival, a magnificent robe of cloth-of-gold. This robe

was imbued with a deadly [232]poison which penetrated to the flesh and

bone of the wearer, and burned them as though with a consuming fire.

Pleased with the beauty and costliness of the garment, the unsuspecting

Glauce lost no time in donning it; but no sooner had she done so than the

fell poison began to take effect. In vain she tried to tear the robe

away; it defied all efforts to be removed, and after horrible and

protracted sufferings, she expired.

Maddened at the loss of her husband’s love Medea next put to death her

three sons, and when Jason, thirsting for revenge, left the chamber of

his dead bride, and flew to his own house in search of Medea, the ghastly

spectacle of his murdered children met his view. He rushed frantically to

seek the murderess, but nowhere could she be found. At length, hearing a

sound above his head, he looked up, and beheld Medea gliding through the

air in a golden chariot drawn by dragons.

In a fit of despair Jason threw himself on his own sword, and perished

on the threshold of his desolate and deserted home.

PELOPS.

Pelops, the son of the cruel Tantalus, was a pious and virtuous

prince. After his father was banished into Tartarus, a war ensued between

Pelops and the king of Troy, in which the former was vanquished and

forced to fly from his dominions in Phrygia. He emigrated into Greece,

where, at the court of Œnomaus, king of Elis, he beheld Hippodamia,

the king’s daughter, whose beauty won his heart. But an oracle having

foretold to Œnomaus that he would die on the day of his daughter’s

marriage, he threw every obstacle in the way of her suitors, and declared

that he would only give her to him who succeeded in vanquishing him in a

chariot race, but that all unsuccessful competitors should suffer death

at his hands.

The conditions of the contest were as follows:—The race was to

be run from a given point at Pisa to the altar of Poseidon at Corinth;

the suitor was allowed to start [233]on his course whilst Œnomaus

performed his sacrifice to Zeus, and only on its completion did the king

mount his chariot, guided by the skilful Myrtilus, and drawn by his two

famous horses, Phylla and Harpinna, who surpassed in swiftness the winds

themselves. In this manner many a gallant young prince had perished; for

although a considerable start was given to all competitors, still

Œnomaus, with his swift team, always overtook them before they

reached the goal, and killed them with his spear. But the love of Pelops

for Hippodamia overcame all fears, and, undeterred by the terrible fate

of his predecessors, he announced himself to Œnomaus as a suitor

for the hand of his daughter.

On the eve of the race, Pelops repaired to the sea-shore and earnestly

implored Poseidon to assist him in his perilous undertaking. The sea-god

heard his prayer, and sent him out of the deep a chariot drawn by two

winged horses.

When Pelops appeared on the course, the king at once recognized the

horses of Poseidon; but, nothing daunted, he relied on his own

supernatural team, and the contest was allowed to proceed.

Whilst the king was offering his sacrifice to Zeus Pelops set out on

the race, and had nearly reached the goal, when, turning round, he beheld

Œnomaus, spear in hand, who, with his magic steeds, had nearly

overtaken him. But in this emergency Poseidon came to the aid of the son

of Tantalus. He caused the wheels of the royal chariot to fly off,

whereupon the king was thrown out violently, and killed on the spot, just

as Pelops arrived at the altar of Poseidon.

As the hero was about to return to Pisa to claim his bride, he beheld,

in the distance, flames issuing from the royal castle, which at that

instant had been struck by lightning. With his winged horses he flew to

rescue his lovely bride, and succeeded in extricating her uninjured from

the burning building. They soon afterwards became united, and Pelops

reigned in Pisa for many years in great splendour.

[234]

HERACLES (Hercules).

Heracles, the most renowned hero of antiquity, was the son of Zeus and

Alcmene, and the great grandson of Perseus.

At the time of his birth Alcmene was living at Thebes with her husband

Amphitryon, and thus the infant Heracles was born in the palace of his

stepfather.

Aware of the animosity with which Hera persecuted all those who

rivalled her in the affections of Zeus, Alcmene, fearful lest this hatred

should be visited on her innocent child, intrusted him, soon after his

birth, to the care of a faithful servant, with instructions to expose him

in a certain field, and there leave him, feeling assured that the divine

offspring of Zeus would not long remain without the protection of the

gods.

Soon after the child had been thus abandoned, Hera and Pallas-Athene

happened to pass by the field, and were attracted by its cries. Athene

pityingly took up the infant in her arms, and prevailed upon the queen of

heaven to put it to her breast; but no sooner had she done so, than the

child, causing her pain, she angrily threw him to the ground, and left

the spot. Athene, moved with compassion, carried him to Alcmene, and

entreated her kind offices on behalf of the poor little foundling.

Alcmene at once recognized her child, and joyfully accepted the

charge.

Soon afterwards Hera, to her extreme annoyance, discovered whom she

had nursed, and became filled with jealous rage. She now sent two

venomous snakes into the chamber of Alcmene, which crept, unperceived by

the nurses, to the cradle of the sleeping child. He awoke with a cry, and

grasping a snake in each hand, strangled them both. Alcmene and her

attendants, whom the cry of the child had awakened, rushed to the cradle,

where, to their astonishment and terror, they beheld the two reptiles

dead in the hands of the infant Heracles. Amphitryon was also attracted

to the chamber by the [235]commotion, and when he beheld this

astounding proof of supernatural strength, he declared that the child

must have been sent to him as a special gift from Zeus. He accordingly

consulted the famous seer Tiresias, who now informed him of the divine

origin of his stepson, and prognosticated for him a great and

distinguished future.

When Amphitryon heard the noble destiny which awaited the child

intrusted to his care, he resolved to educate him in a manner worthy of

his future career. At a suitable age he himself taught him how to guide a

chariot; Eurytus, how to handle the bow; Autolycus, dexterity in

wrestling and boxing; and Castor, the art of armed warfare; whilst Linus,

the son of Apollo, instructed him in music and letters.

Heracles was an apt pupil; but undue harshness was intolerable to his

high spirit, and old Linus, who was not the gentlest of teachers, one day

corrected him with blows, whereupon the boy angrily took up his lyre,

and, with one stroke of his powerful arm, killed his tutor on the

spot.

Apprehensive lest the ungovernable temper of the youth might again

involve him in similar acts of violence, Amphitryon sent him into the

country, where he placed him under the charge of one of his most trusted

herdsmen. Here, as he grew up to manhood, his extraordinary stature and

strength became the wonder and admiration of all beholders. His aim,

whether with spear, lance, or bow, was unerring, and at the age of

eighteen he was considered to be the strongest as well as the most

beautiful youth in all Greece.

The Choice of Heracles.—Heracles felt that the time had

now arrived when it became necessary to decide for himself how to make

use of the extraordinary powers with which he had been endowed by the

gods; and in order to meditate in solitude on this all-important subject,

he repaired to a lonely and secluded spot in the heart of the forest.

Here two females of great beauty appeared to him. [236]One was Vice,

the other Virtue. The former was full of artificial wiles and fascinating

arts, her face painted and her dress gaudy and attractive; whilst the

latter was of noble bearing and modest mien, her robes of spotless

purity.

Vice stepped forward and thus addressed him: “If you will walk in my

paths, and make me your friend, your life shall be one round of pleasure

and enjoyment. You shall taste of every delight which can be procured on

earth; the choicest viands, the most delicious wines, the most luxuriant

of couches shall be ever at your disposal; and all this without any

exertion on your part, either physical or mental.”

Virtue now spoke in her turn: “If you will follow me and be my friend,

I promise you the reward of a good conscience, and the love and respect

of your fellowmen. I cannot undertake to smooth your path with roses, or

to give you a life of idleness and pleasure; for you must know that the

gods grant no good and desirable thing that is not earned by labour; and

as you sow, so must you reap.”

Heracles listened patiently and attentively to both speakers, and

then, after mature deliberation, decided to follow in the paths of

virtue, and henceforth to honour the gods, and to devote his life to the

service of his country.

Full of these noble resolves he sought once more his rural home, where

he was informed that on Mount Cithæron, at the foot of which the herds of

Amphitryon were grazing, a ferocious lion had fixed his lair, and was

committing such frightful ravages among the flocks and herds that he had

become the scourge and terror of the whole neighbourhood. Heracles at

once armed himself and ascended the mountain, where he soon caught sight

of the lion, and rushing at him with his sword succeeded in killing him.

The hide of the animal he wore ever afterwards over his shoulders, and

the head served him as a helmet.

As he was returning from this, his first exploit, he met [237]the heralds of

Erginus, king of the Minyans, who were proceeding to Thebes to demand

their annual tribute of 100 oxen. Indignant at this humiliation of his

native city, Heracles mutilated the heralds, and sent them back, with

ropes round their necks, to their royal master.